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استمع لهذه المقالة
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أيقونة مقالة مسموعة
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???? ??? ?????? [2] ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??. [3] [4] ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????. ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????. ???? ?? (?????)? ?????? ?????????. [3]   ????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? (1899) ?? (????????? ??? ?????? ?????) [5] ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????.  ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? [6] ? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????: ????? ???????. ??? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????.   ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ?? ????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????. [7] ???????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????. ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????. ??? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??????. [8] ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????. [9] ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ????????. ????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???????. ????? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?????????. ???? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? 24 ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????.

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????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????: [10] [11]

  • ?????? ??????? ????????: ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????
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  • ????? ????? ???????: ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????.
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????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????? [12] ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????. [13] ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????. ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????. ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? (??????? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???...). [13] ????? ??? ?????? ?? (????? ?????? ????????) ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????. ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???????.

???????? [ ??? ]

??? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????. [14] ??? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????. [15] ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????. ?????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? [16] ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????. [17]

??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? [ ??? ]

??? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????: ≪????? ????? ??? ???:  ?????  ???  ???? ?  ?????  ???  ???? ? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???  ???? ? ?  ????  ??? ???? ≫ ?  ???? ????   ????   ????????  ?? ???? ??????. ??????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???: ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ≪?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????≫

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????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????????????? ?? ????? ?? ????????-????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????????? ?????? ???????. ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????? ??????????.

???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? (CAT IV 1967). ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????.

????? ????? ? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??????. ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ????.

????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????. ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ?????.

?????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????. ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????. ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????.

??? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? (Robert Stebbins) ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????. [18] ????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ??????: [19]

  1. ??????? ??? ??????
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≪??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ... ???? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ... ??? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ...≫. [20] ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????.

???? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ????? . ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??????. [18]

?????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? [18] ??? ????? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?????????. ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????????.

??????? [ ??? ]

?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? 1900? ????? ??????? ????? ?????. ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? 2800 ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??? 1935. ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????. ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? (1902-1970) [21] ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??? 1935. ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? . ?? ????? ????? (???? ??? ?????) ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????. ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ≪?????? ??????≫. ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????????. ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????. [22] ?? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???????. ??? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? 1940 ????? ????? 5 ?????? ???? ?? ??????????. [23]

??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ??? ??????. [24] ?? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ??????????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ???????. [25] [26] ????? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???. ??? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????. ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ≪?????? ???????: ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ????????.≫ ????? ???????? 2013. [27]

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≪??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ????? ??? ????????? ??.≫ [20] ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ???????.

??????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? [ ??? ]

"??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??????. [20] ". ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ????????.

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????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???. [10]

??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? [28]

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??????? [ ??? ]

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