American style of cooking
Soul food
is the
ethnic cuisine
of
African Americans
.
[1]
[2]
It originated in the
American South
from the cuisines of
enslaved Africans
trafficked to the North American colonies through the
Atlantic slave trade
during the
Antebellum period
and is closely associated (but not to be confused with) with the
cuisine of the American South
.
[3]
The expression "soul food" originated in the mid-1960s, when "
soul
" was a common word used to describe
African-American culture
.
[4]
Soul food uses cooking techniques and ingredients from West African, Central African, Western European, and
Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
.
[5]
Soul food came from the blending of what African Americans ate in their native countries in Africa and what was available to them as slaves. The cuisine had its share of negativity initially. Soul food was initially seen as low class food, and Northern African Americans looked down on their
Black Southern
counterparts who preferred soul food. The term evolved from being the diet of a slave in the South to being a primary pride in the African-American community in the North such as
New York City
.
[6]
History
[
edit
]
Soul food originated in the home cooking of the rural
Southern United States
or the "
Deep South
" and has its origins in slavery, using locally gathered or raised foods and other inexpensive ingredients. Rabbits, squirrels, and deer were often hunted for meat. Fish, frogs, crawfish, turtles, shellfish, and crab were often collected from fresh waters, salt waters, and marshes.
[7]
Soul food originated during the time of slavery, when Black American/
African American
enslaved people were given only leftovers and the undesirable parts of animals, such as ham hocks, hog jowls, and pigs' feet, ears, skin and intestines, which white plantation slave owners did not eat.
[8]
Pork and corn were two staple items in the Southern United States for both slave owners and slaves. The slave owners would have smoked ham and corn pudding while the enslaved were left with the
offal
.
[9]
Origins
[
edit
]
The term
soul food
became popular in the 1960s and 1970s in the midst of the
Black Power movement
.
[10]
One of the earliest written uses of the term is found in
The Autobiography of Malcolm X
,
which was published in 1965.
[11]
LeRoi Jones (later known as
Amiri Baraka
) published an article entitled "Soul Food" and was one of the key proponents for establishing the food as a part of the Black American identity.
[12]
Those who had participated in the
Great Migration
found within soul food a reminder of the home and family they had left behind after moving to unfamiliar northern cities. Soul food restaurants were Black-owned businesses that served as neighborhood meeting places where people socialized and ate together.
[13]
Soul food recipes have pre-slavery influences, as
West African
and
European foodways
were adapted to the environment of the region.
[3]
Many of the foods integral to the cuisine originated in the limited food stuffs that poor southern subsistence farmers had at hand. This in turn was reflected in the rations given to enslaved people by their masters. Enslaved people were typically given a
peck
of cornmeal and 3?4 pounds of pork per week, and those rations formed the basis of African American soul food.
[14]
Most enslaved people needed to consume a high-calorie diet to replenish the calories spent working long days in the fields or performing other physically arduous tasks.
[15]
After
emancipation
, many Black Americans in the South became
sharecroppers
and cooked what was available in their region. This created regional styles of cooking with similar dishes passed down orally in
Black families
.
[16]
[17]
[18]
Impoverished white and Black people in the South cooked many of the same dishes stemming from this tradition, but styles of preparation sometimes varied. Certain techniques popular in soul and other Southern cuisines (i.e., frying meat and using all parts of the animal for consumption) are shared with ancient cultures all over the world, including those of China, Egypt, and Rome.
[19]
Introduction of soul food to cities such as Washington, D.C. and Baltimore came during the
Great Migration
as African Americans moved to the North for work.
African influence
[
edit
]
Scholars have noted the substantial African influence found in soul food recipes, especially from the
West
and
Central
regions of
Africa
. This influence can be seen through the
heat level
of many soul food dishes, as well as many ingredients found within them.
[20]
Peppers used to add spice to food included
malagueta pepper
, as well as peppers native to the western hemisphere such as
red (cayenne) peppers
.
[15]
Several foods that are essential in southern cuisine and soul food were domesticated or consumed in the
African savanna
and the tropical regions of
West
and
Central Africa
. These include
pigeon peas
,
black-eyed peas
,
okra
, and
sorghum
.
[20]
It has also been noted that a species of
rice
was domesticated in Africa, thus many Africans who were brought to the Americas kept their knowledge for rice cooking.
[21]
Rice is a staple side dish in the
Lowcountry
region and in Southern Louisiana. Rice is a main ingredient of dishes such as
jambalaya
and
red beans and rice
, which are popular in
Southern Louisiana
. Recipes for rice and beans that were developed in West Africa were brought to the
South Carolina Lowcountry
by enslaved Africans and continued to be prepared by their descendants, the
Gullah people
. Gullahs made a dish with rice, black-eyed peas, onions, and bacon that they called "
Hoppin' John
".
[22]
A Gullah New Year's Tradition is eating Hoppin' John to bring in good-luck for the New Year. This Gullah dish is now customarily eaten on January 1 throughout the Lowcountry region, usually paired with cornbread and collard greens, which are said to bring prosperity.
[23]
There are many documented parallels between the foodways of West Africans and soul food recipes.
[24]
The consumption of sweet potatoes in the US is reminiscent of the consumption of yams in West Africa. The frequent consumption of cornbread by African-Americans is analogous to West Africans' use of
fufu
to soak up stews.
[24]
West Africans also cooked meat over open pits, and thus it is possible that enslaved Africans came to the Americas with knowledge of this cooking technique (it is also possible they learned it from Native Americans, since Native Americans barbecued as a cooking technique).
[15]
[25]
It was not uncommon to see food served out of an empty gourd. Many techniques to change the overall flavor of staple food items such as nuts, seeds, and rice contributed to added dimensions of evolving flavors. These techniques included roasting, frying with
palm oil
, baking in ashes, and steaming in leaves such as
banana
leaf.
[26]
Native American influence
[
edit
]
Southeastern
Native American
culture is an important element of
Southern cuisine
. From their cultures came one of the main staples of the Southern diet:
corn
(maize), either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to make
hominy
, in a Native American process known as
nixtamalization
.
[27]
Corn was used to make all kinds of dishes, from the familiar
cornbread
and
grits
, to
liquors
such as
moonshine
and
whiskey
(which are still important to the Southern economy
[28]
). Black Americans in
Tuskegee, Alabama
combined
molasses
and leftover grease, a combination they called "
sap
", to pour over their cornbread and "hoe cakes".
[29]
Many
fruits
are available in this region:
blackberries
,
muscadines
,
raspberries
, and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans' diets, as well.
To a far greater degree than anyone realizes, several of the most important food dishes that the Native Americans of the southeastern U.S.A live on today is the "soul food" eaten by both Black and White Southerners. Hominy, for example, is still eaten: Sofkee lives on as grits; cornbread [is] used by Southern cooks; Indian fritters -- variously known as "hoe cake" or "Johnny cake"; Indian boiled cornbread is present in Southern cuisine as "corn meal dumplings" and "hush puppies"; Southerners cook their beans and field peas by boiling them, as did the Native tribes; and, like the Native Americans, Southerners cured their meats and smoked it over hickory coals...
?
Charles Hudson,
The Southeastern Indians
[30]
African, European, and Native Americans of the American South supplemented their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game.
[31]
What meats people ate depended on seasonal availability and geographical region. Common game included
opossums
,
rabbits
, and
squirrels
. The practice of raising
livestock
such as
cattle
and
hogs
was adopted from white people of European descent.
When game or livestock was killed, the entire animal was used. Aside from the meat, it was common for them to eat organ meats such as
brains
,
livers
, and
intestines
. This tradition remains today in hallmark dishes like
chitterlings
(commonly called
chit'lins
), which are small
intestines
of
hogs
;
livermush
(a common dish in the Carolinas made from hog liver); and pork brains and eggs. The fat of the animals, particularly hogs, was rendered and used for cooking and frying. Many of the early European settlers in the South learned Native American cooking methods, and so
cultural diffusion
was set in motion for the Southern dish.
Sauces and Seasoning
[
edit
]
Since the mid-20th century, Black Americans season their food with
Lawry's Seasoned Salt
. This seasoning salt is used to season cooked meats and vegetables. For extra flavor and spice, hot sauce is sprinkled over fried chicken and fish, collard greens, and other cooked foods. Black Americans use Lawry's because it is economical and has given Black families the opportunity to buy an item with multiple herbs and spices. African-Americans still use it in most of their dishes except sweet dishes.
[32]
[33]
[34]
West Africans made variations of hot spicey sauces using hot peppers indigenous to the region. Enslaved West Africans in the southern United States continued to make their own versions of hot sauces using spices and peppers from North America. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans turned to store-bought hot sauces to add flavor and spice to their food.
[35]
[36]
Cookbooks
[
edit
]
Because it was illegal in many states for slaves to learn to read or write, soul food
recipes
and cooking techniques tended to be passed along orally, until after
emancipation
.
[37]
The first soul food
cookbook
is attributed to
Abby Fisher
, entitled
What Mrs. Fisher Knows About Old Southern Cooking
and published in 1881.
Good Things to Eat
was published in 1911; the author, Rufus Estes, was a former slave who worked for the
Pullman
railway
car service. Many other cookbooks were written by black Americans during that time, but as they were not widely distributed, most are now lost.
[38]
Since the mid-20th century, many cookbooks highlighting soul food and African-American foodways have been compiled and published. One notable soul food chef is celebrated traditional Southern chef and author
Edna Lewis
,
[39]
who released a series of books between 1972 and 2003, including
A Taste of Country Cooking
in which she weaves stories of her childhood in
Freetown, Virginia
into her recipes for "real Southern food".
[40]
Another early and influential soul food cookbook is
Vertamae Grosvenor
's
Vibration Cooking, or the Travel Notes of a Geechee Girl
, originally published in 1970, focused on
South Carolina
Lowcountry
/
Geechee
/
Gullah
cooking. Its focus on spontaneity in the kitchen?cooking by "vibration" rather than precisely measuring ingredients, as well as "
making do
" with ingredients on hand?captured the essence of traditional African-American cooking techniques. The simple, healthful, basic ingredients of lowcountry cuisine, like
shrimp
,
oysters
,
crab
, fresh produce, rice and
sweet potatoes
, made it a bestseller.
[41]
Usher boards and Women's Day committees of various religious congregations large and small, and even public service and social welfare organizations such as the
National Council of Negro Women
(NCNW) have produced cookbooks to fund their operations and charitable enterprises.
[42]
The NCNW produced its first cookbook,
The Historical Cookbook of the American Negro
, in 1958, and revived the practice in 1993, producing a popular series of cookbooks featuring recipes by famous black Americans, among them:
The Black Family Reunion Cookbook
(1991),
Celebrating Our Mothers' Kitchens: Treasured Memories and Tested Recipes
(1994), and
Mother Africa's Table: A Chronicle of Celebration
(1998). The NCNW also recently reissued
The Historical Cookbook
.
Cultural relevance
[
edit
]
Soul food originated in the southern region of the US and is consumed by African-Americans across the nation. Traditional soul food cooking is seen as one of the ways enslaved Africans passed their traditions to their descendants once they were brought to the US, and is a cultural creation stemming from slavery and Native American and European influences.
[24]
[15]
Soul food recipes are popular in the South due to the accessibility and affordability of the ingredients.
[24]
[14]
Scholars have noted that while white Americans provided the material supplies for soul food dishes, the cooking techniques found in many of the dishes have been visibly influenced by the enslaved Africans themselves.
[15]
Dishes derived by slaves consisted of many vegetables and grains because slave owners felt more meat would cause the slave to become lethargic with less energy to tend to the crops.
The bountiful vegetables that were found in Africa, were substituted in dishes down south with new leafy greens consisting of dandelion, turnip, and beet greens. Pork, more specifically hog, was introduced into several dishes in the form of cracklins from the skin, pig's feet, chitterlings, and lard used to increase the fat intake into vegetarian dishes. Spices such as thyme, and bay leaf blended with onion and garlic gave dishes their own characteristics.
[26]
Figures such as LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka),
Elijah Muhammad
, and
Dick Gregory
played notable roles in shaping the conversation around soul food.
[43]
[24]
Muhammad and Gregory opposed soul food because they felt it was unhealthy food and was slowly killing African-Americans.
[11]
They saw soul food as a remnant of oppression and felt it should be left behind. Many African-Americans were offended by the Nation of Islam's rejection of pork as it is a staple ingredient used to flavor many dishes.
[24]
Stokely Carmichael
also spoke out against soul food, claiming that it was not true African food due to its colonial and European influence.
[24]
Despite this, many voices in the Black Power Movement saw soul food as something African-Americans should take pride in, and used it to distinguish African-Americans from white Americans.
[12]
Proponents of soul food embraced the concept of it, and used it as a counterclaim to the argument that African-Americans had no culture or cuisine.
[15]
[24]
The magazine
Ebony Jr!
was important in transmitting the cultural relevance of soul food dishes to middle-class African-American children who typically ate a more standard American diet.
[44]
Soul food is frequently found at religious rituals and social events such as funerals, fellowship, Thanksgiving, and Christmas in the black community.
[24]
[39]
[20]
Soul food spread throughout the United States when African Americans from the South moved to major cities across the country such as
Chicago
and
New York City
. They brought with them the foods and traditions of the Southern United States, where they were enslaved.
[45]
Soul food is culturally similar to
Romani cuisine
in Europe.
[46]
Health concerns
[
edit
]
Soul food prepared traditionally and consumed in large amounts can be detrimental to one's health. Opponents to soul food have been vocal about health concerns surrounding the culinary traditions since the name was coined in the mid-20th century.
[47]
[48]
Soul food has been criticized for its high
starch
,
fat
,
sodium
,
cholesterol
, and
caloric content
, as well as the inexpensive and often low-quality nature of the ingredients such as
salted pork
and
cornmeal
. In light of this, soul food has been implicated by some in the disproportionately high rates of high blood pressure (
hypertension
),
type 2 diabetes
, clogged arteries (
atherosclerosis
),
stroke
, and
heart attack
suffered by African-Americans.
[49]
[50]
Figures who led discussions surrounding the negative impacts of soul food include Dr.
Alvenia Fulton
,
Dick Gregory
, and
Elijah Muhammad
.
[43]
[24]
On the other hand, critics and traditionalists have argued that attempts to make soul food healthier also make it less tasty, as well as less culturally/ethnically authentic.
[51]
There is also often a foundational difference in how health is perceived; soul food may differ from normal understandings in American culture.
[52]
Fueled by federal subsidies, the agricultural system in the United States became industrialized as the nutritional value of most processed foods, and not just those implicated in a traditional perception of soul food, have degraded.
[53]
This urges a consideration of how concepts of racial authenticity evolve alongside changes in the structures that make some foods more available and accessible than others.
[54]
[55]
An important aspect of the preparation of soul food was the reuse of cooking
lard
. Because many cooks could not afford to buy new
shortening
to replace what they used, they would pour the liquefied cooking grease into a container. After cooling completely, the grease re-solidified and could be used again the next time the cook required lard.
[56]
With changing fashions and perceptions of "healthy" eating, some cooks may use preparation methods that differ from those of cooks who came before them: using liquid oil like
vegetable oil
or
canola oil
for frying and cooking, and using smoked
turkey
instead of
pork
, for example. Changes in hog farming techniques have also resulted in drastically leaner pork, in the 21st and late 20th centuries. Some cooks have even adapted recipes to include vegetarian alternatives to traditional ingredients, including
tofu
and
soy
-based analogues.
[57]
Several of the ingredients included in soul food recipes have pronounced health benefits.
Collard
and other greens are rich sources of several
vitamins
(including
vitamin A
,
B
6
,
folic acid
or vitamin B
9
,
vitamin K
, and
C
), minerals (
manganese
,
iron
, and
calcium
),
fiber
, and small amounts of
omega-3 fatty acids
. They also contain a number of
phytonutrients
, which are thought to play a role in the prevention of
ovarian
and
breast cancers
.
[58]
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
The traditional preparation of soul food vegetables often consists of high temperatures or slow cooking methods, which can lead the water-soluble vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C and the B complex vitamins) to be destroyed or leached out into the water in which the greens cooked. This water is often consumed and is known as
pot liquor
.
[39]
Because it contains micronutrients from the greens cooked in it, pot liquor contributes to the nutritional value of a meal when consumed.
[59]
Peas
and
legumes
are inexpensive sources of
protein
, and they also contain important vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
[60]
Dishes and ingredients
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"
"Soul Food" a brief history"
.
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. Retrieved
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.
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.
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.
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.
- ^
a
b
"An Illustrated History of Soul Food"
.
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14 March
2023
.
- ^
Ferguson, Sheila (1993).
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"Can the African-American Diet be Made Healthier Without Giving up Culture ? York College / CUNY"
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Jonsson, Patrick (February 6, 2006).
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"Four Fundamental Distinctions in Conceptions of Wellbeing Across Cultures"
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Belasco, Warren (2008).
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The Political Economy of Obesity: The Fat Pay All
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Huges, Marvalene H.
Soul, Black Women, and Food. Ed. Carole Counihan and Penny van Esterik. New York: Routledge, 1997.
- Bowser, Pearl and Jean Eckstein, A Pinch of Soul, Avon, New York, 1970
- Counihan, Carol and Penny Van Esterik editors, Food and Culture, A Reader, Routledge, New York, 1997
- Harris, Jessica, The Welcome Table ? African American Heritage Cooking, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1996
- Mitchell, Patricia (1998).
Plantation Row slave cabin cooking: the roots of soul food
. Patricia B. Mitchell foodways publications. Chatham, VA: P.B. Mitchell.
ISBN
978-0925117892
.
- Root, Waverley and Richard de Rochemont, Eating in America, A History, William Morrow, New York, 1976
- Glenn, Gwendolyn, "American Visions", Southern Secrets From Edna Lewis, February?March, 1997
- Puckett, Susan, "Restaurant and Institutions", Soul Food Revival, February 1, 1997
External links
[
edit
]
Look up
soul food
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Soul food
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