American style of cooking
A plate of soul food consisting of fried chicken, collard greens, macaroni and cheese, and cornbread
Soul food
is the
ethnic cuisine
of
African Americans
.
[1]
[2]
It originated in the
American South
from the cuisines of
enslaved Africans
trafficked to the North American colonies through the
Atlantic slave trade
during the
Antebellum period
and is closely associated (but not to be confused with) the
cuisine of the American South
.
[3]
The expression "soul food" originated in the mid-1960s when "
soul
" was a common word used to describe
African-American culture
.
[4]
Soul food uses cooking techniques and ingredients from
West African
,
Central African
, Western European, and
Indigenous cuisine of the Americas
.
[5]
Soul food came from the blending of what African Americans ate in Africa and what was available to them as slaves. The cuisine initially had its share of negativity. Soul food was seen as low-class food, and African Americans in the
North
looked down on their (formerly)
Black Southern
counterparts who preferred soul food (see
The Great Migration
).
[6]
The concept evolved from describing the food of slaves in the South, to being taken up as a primary source of pride in the African American community even in the North, such as in
New York City
.
[7]
Soul food historian
Adrian Miller
explains the difference between soul food and
Southern food
is that soul food is intensely seasoned and uses a variety of meats to add flavor to food and adds a variety of spicy and savory sauces. These spicy and savory sauces add robust flavor. This method of preparation was influenced by West African cuisine where West Africans create sauces to add flavor and spice to their food. Also, Black Americans add sugar to make cornbread, while "white southerners say when you put sugar in corn bread, it becomes cake...".
[8]
Etymology
[
edit
]
Cooking at stove in old Trepagnier Plantation House,
Norco, Louisiana
, October 1938
The term
soul food
became popular in the 1960s and 1970s in the midst of the
Black Power movement
.
[9]
One of the earliest written uses of the term is found in
The Autobiography of Malcolm X
, which was published in 1965.
[10]
LeRoi Jones (later known as
Amiri Baraka
) published an article entitled "Soul Food" and was one of the key proponents for establishing the food as a part of the Black American identity.
[11]
Those who had participated in the
Great Migration
found within soul food a reminder of the home and family they had left behind after moving to unfamiliar northern cities. Soul food restaurants were Black-owned businesses that served as neighborhood meeting places where people socialized and ate together.
[12]
[13]
[14]
This style of cooking is celebrated in the month of June called National Soul Food month.
[15]
History
[
edit
]
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
[
edit
]
During the period of the
trans-Atlantic slave trade
, enslaved people ate African foods aboard
slave ships
. These included rice,
millet
, okra, black-eyed peas, yams, and
legumes
such as
kidney beans
and
lima beans
. These crops were brought to North America and became a staple in
Southern cuisine
.
[16]
One enslaved African aboard a slave ship recalled later that all they ate were yams on the voyage from Africa to
Charleston, South Carolina
.
[17]
Slave ships were provisioned with African vegetables, fruits, and animals to feed the enslaved people bound in chains below the ships' decks. These items were later planted and used in the New World for food and as cash crops. The introduction of African plants to the Americas that shaped American cuisine was part of what is called the
Columbian exchange
.
[18]
Researchers from Mercer University Libraries explain: "The foods selected to bring to America were brought over for specific reasons. 'They all remain palatable long after harvesting and were thus ideal for use on the slow voyage from Africa. Secondly, they are all the edible parts of plants that thrive in the American South, and therefore they flourished once they had been planted hopefully by the slave in the garden space allotted to him on his owner's plantation'".
[19]
The
guinea fowl
is a bird indigenous to Africa imported to the Americas by way of the slave trade; the bird was brought by the Spanish to the Caribbean, and introduced to the South of what is now the United States in the early 16th century. Guinea fowl became a source of meat for enslaved Black Americans and eventually part of the subsistence culture of the whole region.
[20]
On American plantations, enslaved people consumed the eggs of the guinea fowl, as well as cooking the meat with rice like their West-Central African forebears. Enslaved Africans in the South continued to prepare their traditional dishes of guinea fowl and plant foods native to West and Central Africa. They adapted European and Native American foods and cooking methods to create new recipes that were passed down orally in
Black families
and later published in African-American cookbooks by the end of the
American Civil War
.
[21]
[22]
[23]
Slavery
[
edit
]
Soul food recipes have pre-slavery influences, as
West African
and
European foodways
were adapted to the environment of the region.
[3]
[24]
Soul food originated in the home cooking of the rural
Southern United States
or the "
Deep South
" during the time of slavery, using locally gathered or raised foods and other inexpensive ingredients.
[25]
[26]
Rabbits, squirrels, and deer were often hunted for meat. Fish, frogs, crawfish, turtles, shellfish, and crab were often collected from fresh waters, salt waters, and marshes.
[27]
[28]
Soul food cookery began when Black American/
African American
enslaved people learned to make do with what they were given to eat by their enslavers: leftovers and the undesirable parts of animals such as ham hocks, hog jowls and pigs' feet, ears, skin, and intestines, which white plantation owners did not eat.
[29]
[30]
Soul food was created by enslaved African Americans, who created meals out of minimal ingredients.
[31]
Slaves combined their knowledge of West-Central African cooking methods with techniques borrowed from Native Americans and Europeans, thus creating soul food.
[32]
[33]
Enslaved people in the American South cooked the African
guinea fowl
and paired it with rice, a combination common in the foodways of Sub-Saharan Africa.
Pork and corn were two staple items in the Southern United States for both slave owners and slaves. Many of the foods integral to the cuisine originated in the limited foodstuffs that poor southern subsistence farmers had at hand. This in turn was reflected in the rations given to enslaved people by their enslavers. Enslaved people were typically given a
peck
of
cornmeal
and 3?4 pounds of pork per week, and those rations formed the basis of African American soul food.
[34]
Most enslaved people needed to consume a high-calorie diet to replenish the calories spent working long days in the fields or performing other physically arduous tasks.
[35]
The slave owners would have smoked ham and corn pudding while the enslaved were left with the
offal
.
[36]
[37]
Archaeological
and historical research concerning
slave cabins
in the Southern United States indicates that enslaved African Americans used bowls more often than flatware and plates, suggesting that they primarily made stews and "gumbo" for meals, using local ingredients gathered in nature, vegetables grown in their gardens, and leftover animal scraps rejected by their enslavers. This process allowed enslaved people to create new dishes, for which they developed a variety of ways to season and add spice using hot sauces they prepared. The research shows that white plantation families more often used plates and flatware, indicating that they ate meals consisting of individual cuts of meats and vegetables that were not blended into one dish like the stews made by enslaved people. Enslaved people living on plantations located along the Atlantic coast developed a diversity of foodways enabled by their access to seafood.
[38]
Black fishermen find bass, flounder, shad and rockfish in
Chesapeake Bay
During slavery times,
Gullah people
in the
lowcountry
of South Carolina and Georgia practiced a fishing culture that came from
West Africa
and made canoes similar in appearance to the ones in
Sub-Saharan Africa
. Gullah people passed down their fishing traditions and prepared meals of fish using local ingredients from the region, developing fish dishes that are still a part of Gullah culture. Author Amy Lynne Young's research at the
Mabry Plantation
in Louisiana showed the differences in foodways between enslaved people living inland versus those living along the Atlantic coast. Families in coastal areas had access to a variety of meats from land and sea animals, especially those who lived on the coastlines and barrier
sea islands
. Inland slaves' choices of meats were limited, consisting of game such as rabbit and squirrel, farm chickens, pigs, and leftover animal scraps. Vegetables were locally gathered or grown in their gardens. Young suggests enslaved people living along the coast consequently had a more diverse diet than inland slaves. This demonstrates regional styles of cooking soul food based on local ingredients.
[39]
[40]
[41]
A young African American at the
Chesapeake Bay
cleaning crab shells
Frederick Douglass
explained in his autobiography that because enslaved people living on the Eastern shore of Maryland near the
Choptank River
received the bare minimum in food from their enslavers, they fished for food to supplement their diet, catching turtles, fish, and eels. Douglass wrote: "The men and women slaves received, as their monthly allowance of food, eight pounds of pork, or its equivalent in fish, and one bushel of corn meal". Another way they supplemented their diet was by growing vegetable gardens; they grew corn, potatoes, peas, beans, herbs, and melons. They did not have fat or cooking oil to cook their food.
[42]
[43]
After national emancipation many African Americans got into the seafood industry. By 1864 almost half of all
watermen
in Maryland were former slaves. They became skilled in netting shrimp, gathering oysters, and fishing.
[44]
During the American Civil War, some enslaved people in Maryland ate clabber milk, fish, and cornbread.
[45]
After the war, Maryland became known for its crabbing industry, and Maryland deep-fried crab cakes became a part of soul food cuisine.
[46]
A slave food garden at
Mount Vernon
- To supplement their diet, enslaved people grew their own food to make stews.
Enslaved fishermen in
Virginia
caught fish to feed their families and the
slave community
.
The Encyclopedia of Virginia
explains the history of free and enslaved Black fishermen: "Enslaved workers also received fish considered undesirable by whites, such as
garfish
, whose red flesh Niemcewicz explained 'is little esteemed, serving only as food for negroes', and black catfish, which held less appeal for whites than white catfish, which was 'considered excellent.' Enslaved workers also fished in their time off to supplement their rations."
[47]
[48]
At
George Washington
's residential plantation in Virginia,
Mount Vernon
, enslaved cooks there prepared corn meal pancakes, "hoe cakes", individual cuts of meat, and seasoned cooked vegetables for the Washington family, while the enslaved people primarily ate corn meal and salted fish..
[49]
The diet of slaves in Virginia generally included meat from farm animals, vegetables, blackberries, walnuts, and seafood. Historical research at the Burroughs plantation in
Franklin County, Virginia
by the
National Park Service
showed that enslaved people there had a diet of cornbread, pork, chicken, sweet potatoes, and boiled corn for breakfast. Along the coast, enslaved people ate
oysters
and seafood.
Booker T. Washington
was born enslaved in Franklin County, Virginia in 1856 and wrote an autobiography titled,
The Story of My Life and Work and Up from Slavery
, that explained the diet he grew up with as an enslaved child. Washington's mother was an enslaved plantation cook who prepared meals for the white families.
[50]
Cooking techniques in
West Africa
continued in North America with enslaved Africans and their descendants.
Booker T. Washington's mother cooked over an open fireplace or in skillets and pots. Washington, his mother, and siblings ate out of pots and skillets while white families ate from plates and flatware using forks and spoons. His mother prepared one-pot meals for her family using local meats, vegetables, nuts, and berries, combining all the ingredients in a pot to make a stew. This way of cooking is still done in West Africa and continued in the Southern United States with enslaved families.
[51]
Enslaved people at the Burroughs plantation had a variety of vegetables with which to make stews; they were: "Asparagus, beets, beans, black-eyed peas, carrots, cabbage, cucumbers, garden peas, Irish potatoes, kale, lettuce, lima beans, muskmelons, okra, onions, peppers, radishes, tomatoes, turnips, and watermelons would be planted, ripened, and harvested from spring through fall".
[52]
According to Chambers's research,
Igbo
Africans influenced the foodways of Black Americans in Virginia. During the slave trade, about 30,000 Igbo people were imported from
Igboland
to Virginia. Igbo people in West Africa ate yams, okra, poultry, goats, and fished for their food. Okra, yams, black-eyed peas, and other African foods were brought to Virginia and enslaved Igbo people cooked these foods and prepared stews as one-pot meals. Enslaved people fished for food in the
Chesapeake Bay
and prepared seafood meals. In Virginia's nearby creeks and rivers, slaves caught catfish, crayfish, perch, herring, and turtles for food.
[53]
[54]
White plantation owners in Virginia rarely provided food to feed their slaves. To supplement their diets, enslaved people relied on Igbo methods such as hunting, fishing, and foraging for food and prepared meals that were influenced by Igbo culture. Chambers wrote: "Slave owners stinted the slaves, throwing the people back onto their own resourcefulness for sustenance. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, masters provided slaves with only the barest necessities. Weekly or monthly rations consisted of salt fish and/ or pork, corn or cornmeal, and salt and perhaps molasses. The largest plantation holders usually doled out salted herring as well as smoked pork and corn, which the slaves pounded and mixed with beans and boiled into hominy".
[55]
Macaroni and cheese, a European dish that became a staple in Southern cuisine, was popularized in the United States by enslaved cook
James Hemings
,
Thomas Jefferson
's personal chef.
A few enslaved chefs had some degree of autonomy because of their cooking skills, such as
Hercules Posey
and
James Hemings
. Hercules Posey was the enslaved cook for
George Washington
at
Mount Vernon
in Virginia. Posey's dishes were so popular among elite white families that he had quasi-freedom to leave the house on his own and earn money selling leftovers. According to historians, the dishes Posey made were influenced by West African, European, and Native American foodways. He created dishes of veal, roast beef, and duck, along with puddings and jellies prepared in a way not unlike that of other chefs, but creating his own sauces and flavors. Posey was never given his freedom, and eventually escaped from slavery.
[56]
[57]
James Hemings (brother of
Sally Hemings
) was born enslaved in colonial Virginia and was the head
chef
for
Thomas Jefferson
. Hemings combined African, French, and Native American food traditions. While enslaved, Hemings traveled to
Paris, France
with Jefferson, where he trained under French chefs and learned how to make macaroni pie (today called
macaroni and cheese
). Hemings introduced and popularized macaroni and cheese in the United States; it later became a common side item in soul food dishes in Black communities.
[58]
[59]
Enslaved women cooking
Sesame
is an African crop that was brought to South Carolina in 1730 during the slave trade. Thomas Jefferson noted how enslaved people prepared stews, baked breads, boiled their greens with sesame seeds, and made sesame pudding. Slaves ate sesame raw, toasted, and boiled. It was used as an ingredient for baked breads in colonial America and is still used in the present day.
[60]
Some slaves grew herbs in their gardens to add flavor to their food.
[61]
Other cooking techniques were boiling and simmering food in an earthenware or iron pot known as colonoware.
[62]
Salt was used to preserve meats for weeks until consumption.
[63]
To sweeten their food and beverages, slaves used
molasses
. They also made blackstrap molasses, a very dark molasses with robust flavor, by cooking the juice of
sugar cane
low and slow. Other sweet sauces created and used by slaves were sorghum syrup, similar to molasses, made by cooking the juice of the
sorghum plant
. Sorghum seeds came from West Africa by way of the
trans-Atlantic slave trade
and were grown by enslaved people on plantations in the New World and used to make sweet sauces.
[64]
[65]
According to research by scholars at
Mercer University
, white plantation families initially refused to eat African foods prepared by their slaves, although in many plantation kitchens enslaved African women were the primary cooks. These women passed down cultural knowledge of cooking techniques to the children. Older slave women were preferred as cooks by white plantation families because they were seen as nonthreatening, knowledgeable, and skilled in cooking. Time spent in the kitchen was time that enslaved mothers could spend bonding with their children and teaching them about life, culture, and foodways. In African societies and during slavery, women were the primary cooks. The role of enslaved Black women in the kitchen and as mothers led to racist stereotypes portraying them as
Mammys
.
[66]
[67]
Using ashes to cook is a traditional method of cooking in Africa that continued in the slave communities in the American South.
Slave narratives
revealed continued African methods of cooking, heating, and seasoning food. Enslaved people roasted and heated their foods using ashes from fire pits, a traditional cooking method in Africa. This method was passed down orally in Black families in the Antebellum South, and slave narratives explained how slaves cooked food this way. The word "ash" was appended to the name of some of the food thus prepared, as in "ash cake" and "ash roasted potatoes". Enslaved people placed food directly on hot ashes or coals to roast or bake their foods. Pots and pans were also placed on top of hot ashes and coals to cook food. Some slaves heated or cooked their foods by putting them on leaves placed on top of the hot ashes. A former slave, Betty Curlett from Arkansas, told of roasting her potatoes on hot ashes: "They cooked a washpot full of peas for a meal or two and roasted potatoes around the pot in the ashes."
[68]
Some slaves did not receive enough food from their enslavers as some
slaves starved
and consequently were malnourished. House slaves and field slaves had different diets. House slaves ate the leftovers they prepared for white plantation families such as individual cuts from meats like chicken, turkey, or fish, along with pies and seasoned vegetables. Slaves working in the field ate leftover animal scraps,
offal
, and whatever food they could find in their environment. Some field slaves rarely ate regular hearty meals. Historian
John Blassingame's
book published in 1972,
The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South
, was researched from a collection of
slave narratives
. According to Blassingame's research, some enslaved people received the bare minimum in food and had to supplement their diets by hunting, fishing, and foraging for food.
[69]
[70]
Chitlins
Chitterlings
(also known as chitlin's) are cleaned pig intestines; they are cooked in a pot and seasoned. This food has been associated with enslaved Black people in the American South; however, eating animal innards (intestines) is practiced in other cultures such as Asia, Europe, and West Africa. The
Hausa people
in West Africa eat chicken intestines. Enslaved Africans in the American South continued their traditions of cooking, seasoning, and eating animal innards. Chitterlings are considered a delicacy in other cultures.
[71]
Due to the time it takes to clean pig intestines, chitterlings were preserved for special occasions and holidays. Some cooks season chitterlings with onions, celery, garlic, salt and pepper, and butter.
[72]
Slave recipes
[
edit
]
Enslaved people fried their foods in lard, which is rendered pork fat.
In the 1930s, the
Works Progress Administration
paid American writers to gather stories from the last generations of African Americans born into slavery that are called
slave narratives
. Alongside the narratives are collections of recipes for sauces, desserts, and cooked meat and seafood dishes made by formerly enslaved African Americans. These records have been studied by
John Blassingame
,
Michael Twitty
,
Jessica B. Harris
, and other historians as they reveal the food culture and diets of enslaved people. The narratives show how enslaved people created new dishes that influenced Southern cuisine in the United States.
[73]
Slaves used red peppers and vinegar with other ingredients and made a homemade barbecue sauce.
A former slave named Wesley Jones from South Carolina gave a recipe to make a vinegar-based
barbecue sauce
using black and red peppers and
vinegar
. Wesley said slaves barbecued meats often, smoking and basting their meats with this homemade barbecue sauce; they would stay up all night slow cooking the meat. Other slave narratives described barbecuing as a preferred method of cooking because it added flavor and spice to food. Slaves barbecued their foods for special occasions and on their days off. Henry Bland,a former slave who lived in Georgia, said slaves had July 4th (Independence Day) off from work, allowing them to barbecue food, play ball games, wrestle, and play music.
[74]
[75]
A former slave named Callie Elder from Georgia said her grandfather cooked catfish with lard, salt, and pepper, and rolled the catfish in
cornmeal
before baking. Former slave Clara Davis from Alabama cooked catfish using tomatoes and potatoes or prepared baked catfish with a tomato gravy and sweet potatoes. Slaves in the South fried catfish in
lard
or other fats. Enslaved people made use of fruits like apples and peaches that had been introduced to North America by European colonists. Some fruits, such as apples, were battered and deep fried in oil, fruit fritters were also fried, and peaches were stewed. Former slaves Mose King from Arkansas and Rose Williams from Texas described eating
goat
. Mary Minus Biddie was a former slave from Florida and said enslaved people cooked goat in a smokehouse. David Goodman Gullins was a former slave from Georgia and said they prepared barbecued goat. Goat is a traditional meat in West Africa and was commonly cooked and eaten in the American south by slaves.
[76]
Black Americans preparing a southern barbecue
Enslaved people also barbecued
squirrels
. One recipe for barbecued squirrels that might have been similar to the way slaves cooked them was given in an 1879 cookbook: "Put them in the oven and let them cook until done. Lay them on a dish and set near the fire. Take out the bacon, sprinkle one spoonful of flour in the gravy and let it brown. Then pour in one teacup of water, one tablespoon of butter and some tomato or walnut catsup. Let it cool, and then pour it over the squirrel." Barbecuing and preparing barbecue sauce and hot sauce were done to season lower grades of meats.
[77]
Enslaved people living near rivers and the Atlantic Ocean caught
crab
and made stews with the crab meat in a pot with okra, sometimes adding a sauce. Cooking seafood with okra is a traditional cooking method from West Africa that slaves continued on Southern plantations.
[78]
Some of these recipes made by former slaves were published in African-American cookbooks. The earliest such cookbook was self-published in 1866 by
Malinda Russell
as a pamphlet titled,
A Domestic Cookbook: Containing a Careful Selection of Useful Receipts for the Kitchen
.
[79]
A cookbook published in 1900 in the city of
Charleston, South Carolina
had recipes used by formerly enslaved Gullah people.
Benne seeds
from
sesame
, a plant native to West Africa, were eaten raw with sugar or milk. Enslaved people also made cakes, wafers, and brittles from them for white plantation families whom they called "
buckra
"
[80]
(a
Gullah word
for white people).
[81]
[82]
Emancipation
[
edit
]
Emancipation Day celebration in Beaufort
On January 1, 1863, Gullah people in the
sea islands
of South Carolina celebrated their freedom on New Year's Day at
Camp Saxton
in Beaufort with food and barbecues. Black people in the barrier islands of South Carolina became free early during the
American Civil War
after the
Battle of Port Royal
on November 7, 1861, when many of the plantation owners and white residents fled the area after the arrival of the Union Navy and Army. As a result, over 10,000 African Americans became free on that day.
[83]
However, their freedom was not official in government writing until the passage of the
Emancipation Proclamation
on New Year's Day in 1863. Thousands of newly freed people celebrated their freedom with food, song, and dance.
[84]
Charlotte Forten
, the first black teacher at the
Penn School
on
St. Helena Island
in Beaufort, attended the Emancipation Day celebration at Camp Saxton and recorded in her journal they ate roasted oxen and barbecue.
[85]
[86]
[87]
Susie King Taylor
, a Geechee woman born enslaved in
Liberty County, Georgia
, wrote in her memoir that she had also attended the Emancipation Day celebration at Camp Saxton: "It was a glorious day for us all, and we enjoyed every minute of it, and as a fitting close and crowning event of this occasion we had a grand barbecue".
[88]
Other Emancipation Day celebrations were celebrated with a barbecue feast, a tradition that originated in the
slave community
.
[89]
[90]
A 2017 Juneteenth Celebration showing soul food vendors
After the
American Civil War
, 4 million African Americans were freed from slavery. They celebrated their newly won freedom with barbecues and
Emancipation Day
celebrations and prepared soul food meals. Two months after the Civil War ended in April 1865, slaveholders in Galveston, Texas refused to tell their slaves the Civil War had ended and they were free. On June 19, 1865, United States Brigadier
General Gordon Granger
and his troops arrived in Galveston and read the Emancipation Proclamation announcing that enslaved people were now free. To celebrate their freedom, African Americans in Galveston, and other Black communities in the United States, gathered at public parks and prepared red foods that represent the color of freedom. These celebrations are called
Juneteenth
, which became a national holiday under the Biden Administration in the year 2021.
[91]
Picayune Creole Cookbook
According to food historian
Michael Twitty
, the reason African Americans eat red food on Juneteenth is that it reminds them of the blood of their ancestors that was shed during slavery, and the cultural colors of the
Yoruba
and
Bakongo people
, who were enslaved in the Southern United States and brought to North America under the slave trade. Among the Yoruba and Bakongo people, the color red represents power, sacrifice, and transformation.
[92]
[93]
The red foods eaten at Juneteenth are, watermelon, red lemonade, and
red velvet cake
.
[94]
In addition to red foods, BBQ, fried foods, and other cooked meals are prepared to celebrate the day of freedom.
[95]
After
emancipation
, many Black Americans in the South became
sharecroppers
and cooked what was available in their region. This created regional styles of cooking with similar dishes passed down orally in
Black families
.
[96]
[97]
[98]
Due to slave laws, it was illegal in many states for slaves to learn to read or write. Soul food
recipes
and cooking techniques were passed down orally until after emancipation.
[99]
The first soul food
cookbook
is attributed to
Abby Fisher
, entitled
What Mrs. Fisher Knows About Old Southern Cooking
and published in 1881.
Good Things to Eat
was published in 1911; the author, Rufus Estes, was a former slave who worked for the
Pullman
railway
car service. Many other cookbooks were written by Black Americans during that time, but as they were not widely distributed, most are now lost.
[100]
Mid-20th century to present day
[
edit
]
Black-owned night-clubs during the Jim Crow era were called the Chitlin' Circuit?they were safe places for Black people to eat.
[101]
[102]
The introduction of soul food to cities such as
Washington, D.C.
,
Baltimore
, and
Harlem
came during the
Great Migration
as African Americans moved to the North looking for work.
Sylvia Woods
was born in
Hemingway, South Carolina
in 1926. When Woods was a teenager she moved to Harlem and worked in a
Brooklyn
factory. In 1954, Woods changed jobs and started working at Johnson's Luncheonette located in central Harlem. Seven years later, Woods and her husband purchased the luncheonette and opened it as a soul food restaurant in 1962, calling it
Sylvia's Restaurant
.
[103]
[104]
Impoverished white and Black people in the South cooked many of the same dishes stemming from Southern cooking traditions, but styles of preparation sometimes varied. Certain techniques popular in soul and other Southern cuisines (i.e., frying meat and using all parts of the animal for consumption) are shared with cultures all over the world.
[105]
Food historian
Adrian Miller
studied soul food's development in Maryland and in Northern American states. Soul food in Maryland's Black communities added local flavors from seafood from the
Chesapeake Bay
. People in Maryland fried chicken in shallow fat in a frying pan, covering it with a lid, thus frying and steaming the chicken, which was served with waffles.
[106]
[107]
Chicken and waffles
became a common soul food item to eat in Black communities in Maryland and in
Harlem, New York
. During the
blues
and
jazz
era, musicians and singers performed and practiced late into the night and stopped at black-owned restaurants for food where cooks prepared fried chicken and waffles for their customers.
[108]
[109]
Nightclubs in Black communities in the United States during the
Jim Crow era
were called the
Chitlin' Circuit
, named after the dish that was usually associated with Black southerners and soul food.
[110]
[111]
The Busy Bee Cafe
is a soul food restaurant frequented by civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.
During the
civil rights movement
, soul food restaurants were places where civil rights leaders and activists met to discuss and strategize civil rights protests and ideas for implementing social and political change. As the
Atlanta History Center
explained: "Throughout the civil rights movement in Atlanta, soul food restaurants were hubs of change where civil rights leaders could convene, converse, and strategize, and in times of terror and violence, these places were retreats where leaders could plan their next tactical moves, giving many of these spots a legacy beyond good cooking". Soul food restaurants in
Atlanta, Georgia
served as the primary meeting places for numerous civil rights leaders and supporters of the movement. Many politicians and civil rights leaders gathered to discuss plans about the movement at
Paschal's Restaurant
on West Hunter Street. In the 1950s and 1960s, civil rights icons such as
Andrew Young
,
John Lewis
,
Martin Luther King Jr.
,
Julian Bond
,
Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
, and
Jesse Jackson
frequented the restaurant, staying late into the night talking about civil rights strategies and politics. Several soul food restaurants were located on West Hunter Street because
Jim Crow laws
restricted where African Americans were allowed to operate their businesses.
[112]
[113]
Ben's Chili Bowl is a black-owned restaurant in Washington, D.C.
In 1963, a few days before the
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
in Washington D.C., where Martin Luther King Jr. gave his
I Have a Dream Speech
on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, King ate at a soul food restaurant called the Florida Avenue Grill. During the years of the civil rights movement, other civil rights leaders and activists met at the restaurant, planning and strategizing for the movement. Before King was assassinated on April 4, 1968, at the
Lorraine Motel
in Memphis, Tennessee, he ate at the Four Way restaurant and had fried catfish and icebox pie. Throughout his civil rights career, King frequented several soul food restaurants where he ate and met with other local and national civil rights leaders.
[114]
After King's assassination, riots broke out in
Washington D.C.
, and the leader of the
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
(SNCC),
Stokely Carmichael
, asked the owner of
Ben's Chili Bowl
restaurant to remain open to provide food for police officers, student activists, and firefighters as they worked together to stop the riot. Authors Hoekstra and Khan explained in their book,
The People's Place: Soul Food Restaurants and Reminiscences from the Civil Rights Era to Today
, that soul food restaurants served as places to bring communities and families together in times of trouble during the Jim Crow era and helped in the fight against segregation laws by allowing white and Black people to eat together.
[115]
Staff of Sylvia's, a legendary soul food restaurant in
Harlem, New York
In
Montgomery, Alabama
, civil rights protestors convened and organized for the movement at soul food restaurants because they provided a safe haven and a place to eat and relax. Martha's Place and Chris' Hotdogs were visited by protestors. During this period of activism, Jereline and Larry James Bethune, the owners of the restaurant Brenda's BBQ, also in Montgomery, taught African Americans how to register to vote and how to read a ballot when Jim Crow laws and
literacy tests
prevented Black people from voting. Civil rights activists frequented the restaurant for moral and financial support. The owners also helped to print out fliers for the movement and allowed protestors to have secret meetings in the back of the restaurant.
[116]
Atlanta's oldest black-owned restaurant, the Evelyn Jones Cafe, was founded in 1936 by Evelyn Jones and her sister. In the mid-1940s, Evelyn and her husband, Luther Frazier, enlarged the restaurant and renamed it Frazier's Cafe Society. It is located at 880 Martin Luther King Jr. Drive (then known as West Hunter Street). The Jones family challenged Jim Crow laws when they allowed whites and blacks to eat together. It was the first interracial restaurant on West Hunter Street. The cafe also served as a location for civil rights leaders to meet. The foods the restaurant served were Virginia baked ham, pork chop dinner, jumbo shrimp, roast beef, and other classic Southern dishes.
[117]
[118]
Club from Nowhere was a black-owned soul food restaurant that opened in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, operated by Georgia Gilmore. Gilmore's fried chicken, macaroni and cheese, stuffed pork chops, stuffed peppers, and coleslaw were popular among her black and white customers. These were dishes she learned how to make from the women in her family. Several soul food restaurants served black and white people before the passage of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964
, which made segregated facilities illegal.
[119]
[120]
During the
Jim Crow era
in the 20th century, it was not safe for Black Americans to travel on the road as they faced possible violence from white supremacists. Black people needed to know what places were safe to stop for food, gas, and motels. In 1936, an African American postal worker from Harlem, New York, named
Victor Hugo Green
created the
The Green Book
for Black people to travel safely in the Southern United States, where Jim Crow laws were widespread. Several soul food restaurants were listed in the book because they were safe havens for African Americans to eat. One restaurant listed in the Green Book was Swett's, which opened in 1954.
[121]
[122]
African-Americans in church during a church service. Black churches served soul food meals to feed the
African-American community
.
The
Black Church
(African-American churches) played a key role in Black communities as they provided food and a place of worship. Researchers from
PBS
explained: "Religion played a key role in the proliferation of soul food, as well as the diversification of the cuisine. Black churches, crucial during slavery and in the Civil Rights movement, were also crucial as gathering places, where Black communities could eat and rejoice over plates of chicken and dumplings, black-eyed peas and rice, red drinks, and the classic Black American church dish, fried catfish and spaghetti".
[123]
Chris Carter is an African American pastor and professor of history who published a book about the Black Church and soul food in 2021 titled,
The Spirit of Soul Food: Race, Faith, and Food Justice
. According to Carter, soul food in the African-American community is food that fights injustices centered around the lack of access to food, as some Black Americans live in poverty and Black churches on Sundays and during the week prepare meals to feed their community.
[124]
Since the mid-20th century, many cookbooks highlighting soul food and African-American foodways have been compiled and published. One notable soul food chef is celebrated traditional Southern chef and author
Edna Lewis
,
[125]
who released a series of books between 1972 and 2003, including
A Taste of Country Cooking
in which she weaves stories of her childhood in
Freetown, Virginia
into her recipes for "real Southern food".
[126]
Another early and influential soul food cookbook is
Vertamae Grosvenor
's
Vibration Cooking, or the Travel Notes of a Geechee Girl
, originally published in 1970, focused on
South Carolina
Lowcountry
/
Geechee
/
Gullah
cooking. Its focus on spontaneity in the kitchen?cooking by "vibration" rather than precisely measuring ingredients, as well as "
making do
" with ingredients on hand?captured the essence of traditional African-American cooking techniques. The simple, healthful, basic ingredients of lowcountry cuisine, like
shrimp
,
oysters
,
crab
, fresh produce, rice, and
sweet potatoes
, made it a bestseller.
[127]
The Historical Cookbook of the American Negro
Usher boards and Women's Day committees of various religious congregations large and small, and even public service and social welfare organizations such as the
National Council of Negro Women
(NCNW) have produced cookbooks to fund their operations and charitable enterprises.
[128]
The NCNW produced its first cookbook,
The Historical Cookbook of the American Negro
, in 1958, and revived the practice in 1993, producing a popular series of cookbooks featuring recipes by famous Black Americans, among them:
The Black Family Reunion Cookbook
(1991),
Celebrating Our Mothers' Kitchens: Treasured Memories and Tested Recipes
(1994), and
Mother Africa's Table: A Chronicle of Celebration
(1998). The NCNW also recently reissued
The Historical Cookbook
.
[129]
[130]
[131]
In 2011, culinary historian
Jessica B. Harris
published a book titled,
High on the Hog
that explains the origins and development of African-American dishes and their roots in
Sub-Saharan Africa
. Enslaved and free African Americans incorporated indigenous foods from North America such as plants, fruits, and animals but
Africanized
the foods by preparing and flavoring their dishes similarly to West and Central Africans.
[132]
Harris' book later became a docuseries in 2021 on
Netflix
called
High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America
.
[133]
In 2018, African American author and culinary historian
Michael Twitty
published
The Cooking Gene: A Journey Through African American Culinary History in the Old South
that explains the history, development, and evolution of soul food in Black communities in the Southern United States.
[134]
Gullah Geechee
chef
,
Emily Meggett
, was born on
Edisto Island, South Carolina
in 1922. Meggett learned how to farm and cook from her family and published a book about Gullah cuisine in 2022 titled,
Gullah Geechee Home Cooking: Recipes from the Matriarch of Edisto Island
.
[135]
[136]
In 2024, Lakisha Harris became the first Black woman in the United States to present a presentation on soul food at the
American Culinary Federation
(ACF) National Convention titled,
Culinary Freedom of the Soul
.
[137]
Gullah Geechee
chef
Benjamin Dennis IV
, born in
Charleston, South Carolina
, continues to educate the public about Gullah and African-American cuisine's origins in
West African cuisine
and its influence on American foodways.
[138]
[139]
African influence
[
edit
]
Ham hock
and
black-eyed peas
Scholars have found substantial African influence in soul food recipes, especially from the
West
and
Central
regions of
Africa
. This influence can be seen in the
heat level
of many soul food dishes, as well as many ingredients used to prepare them.
[140]
Peppers used to add spice to food include
malagueta pepper
, as well as variants native to the
Western Hemisphere
such as
red (cayenne) peppers
.
[35]
Several foods essential to Southern cuisine and soul food were domesticated or consumed in the
African savannah
and the tropical regions of
West
and
Central Africa
. These include
watermelon
,
pigeon peas
,
black-eyed peas
,
okra
,
sorghum
, and peppers.
[140]
[141]
Okra is used in soul food dishes
A species of
rice
was domesticated in Africa, so many people brought to the Americas preserved rice cooking techniques. Rice was a
cash crop
in the
South Carolina Lowcountry
, and during the slave trade, Europeans selected coastal inhabitants of West Africa who had knowledge of
rice cultivation
.
[142]
[143]
Rice is a staple
side dish
in the
Lowcountry
region and in Louisiana. It is a main ingredient in dishes such as
jambalaya
and
red beans and rice
, popular in
Southern Louisiana
. Recipes for rice and beans developed in West Africa were brought to the
South Carolina Lowcountry
by enslaved Africans and continue to be prepared by their descendants, the
Gullah
people. A Gullah dish of rice, black-eyed peas, onions, and bacon is
Hoppin' John
.
[144]
Food historian
Jessica B. Harris
traces this dish to a
Senegalese
food called
Chiebou niebe
, made with rice and beef. Enslaved Black Americans in the United States thus created new dishes with origins in West Africa but using North American ingredients.
[145]
A Gullah
New Year
tradition is eating Hoppin' John to bring in good luck. Customarily eaten on January 1 throughout the Lowcountry region, it is often paired with
cornbread
and collard greens, which are also said to bring prosperity.
[146]
Authentic Gullah
Hoppin' John
Charleston red rice
is made with rice and tomato paste. This dish originated from
jollof rice
in West Africa, which is made with a tomato product giving the rice its red color.
[147]
In the Lowcountry of South Carolina and Georgia, enslaved Gullah Geechee people's main source of food was rice paired with meats and shellfish. These rice cooking techniques, influenced by rice dishes made in West Africa, are practiced today in Gullah communities.
[148]
[149]
There are many documented parallels between the
foodways
of West Africans and soul food recipes.
[150]
The consumption of
sweet potatoes
in the United States echoes the consumption of
yams
in West Africa. The presence of cornbread on African-American tables is analogous to West African use of
fufu
to soak up sauces and stews.
[150]
Harris starred in the 2021 docuseries
High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America
and traveled to
Benin
, West Africa, where she saw women making a leafy sauce called
feuille
, prepared similarly to how African Americans cook collard greens.
[151]
West Africans also cooked meat over open pits, and thus it is possible that enslaved Africans came to the Americas with knowledge of this cooking technique (it is also possible they learned it from Native Americans, since Native Americans barbecued as a cooking technique).
[35]
[152]
It was not uncommon to see food served out of an empty
gourd
. Many techniques to change the overall flavor of staple food items such as nuts, seeds, and rice contributed to added dimensions of evolving flavors. These techniques included roasting, frying with
palm oil
, baking in ashes, and steaming in leaves such as
banana
leaf.
[153]
Native American influence
[
edit
]
Cornbread, a traditional Native American food, became a staple in African-American cooking
Southeastern
Native American
culture is an important element of
Southern cuisine
. From their cultures came one of the main staples of the Southern diet:
corn
(maize), either ground into meal or limed with an alkaline salt to make
hominy
, in a Native American process known as
nixtamalization
.
[154]
Corn was used to make all kinds of dishes, from the familiar
cornbread
and
grits
to
liquors
such as
moonshine
and
whiskey
(which are still important to the Southern economy
[155]
). Black Americans in
Tuskegee, Alabama
combined
molasses
and leftover cooked grease, a combination they called "
sap
", to pour over their cornbread and "hoe cakes".
[156]
The foods of
Black Seminoles
in Florida and Oklahoma are influenced by
Gullah
rice and bean dishes and
Seminole
foodways. Black Seminoles cooked rice, "sometimes applying a sauce of okra or spinach leaves".
[157]
[158]
Historian Ray Von Robertson conducted oral interviews with sixteen Black Seminoles from 2006 and 2007 and found that Seminole cultural influences were incorporated into their daily lives in practices such as foodways and herbal medicine. Black Seminoles cooked and ate fry bread,
sofkee
, and grape dumplings.
[159]
Grits
originated among Southeastern Native American tribes and have become a staple in soul food dishes.
Many
fruits
are available in this region:
blackberries
,
muscadines
,
raspberries
, and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans' diets as well.
To a far greater degree than anyone realizes, several of the most important food dishes that the Native Americans of the southeastern U.S.A live on today is the "soul food" eaten by both Black and White Southerners. Hominy, for example, is still eaten: Sofkee lives on as grits; cornbread [is] used by Southern cooks; Indian fritters -- variously known as "hoe cake" or "Johnny cake"; Indian boiled cornbread is present in Southern cuisine as "corn meal dumplings" and "hush puppies"; Southerners cook their beans and field peas by boiling them, as did the Native tribes; and, like the Native Americans, Southerners cured their meats and smoked it over hickory coals...
?
Charles Hudson,
The Southeastern Indians
[160]
African, European, and Native Americans of the American South supplemented their diets with meats derived from the hunting of native game. What meats people ate depended on seasonal availability and geographical region. Common game included
opossums
,
rabbits
, and
squirrels
.
[161]
When game or livestock was killed, the entire animal was used. Aside from the meat, it was common for them to eat organ meats such as
brains
,
livers
, and
intestines
. This tradition remains today in hallmark dishes like
chitterlings
(commonly called
chit'lins
), which are the small
intestines
of
hogs
;
livermush
(a common dish in the Carolinas made from hog liver); and pork brains and eggs. The fat of the animals, particularly hogs, was rendered and used for cooking and frying. Many of the early European settlers in the South learned Native American cooking methods, setting in motion the
cultural diffusion
of Southern cuisine.
[
citation needed
]
Sauces and seasoning
[
edit
]
Hot sauce is used to add flavor to food.
Since the mid-20th century, Black Americans have seasoned cooked meats and vegetables with
Lawry's Seasoned Salt
. Because Lawry's is economical and offers multiple herbs and spices in one product, Black Americans use it in most of their dishes except sweet dishes.
[162]
[163]
[164]
For extra flavor and spice, hot sauce is sprinkled over fried chicken and fish, collard greens, and other cooked foods. West Africans made variations of hot spicy sauces using hot
peppers
indigenous to the region. After their enslavement and transportation to the southern United States, they continued to make their own versions of hot sauces using spices and peppers from North America. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans were turning to store-bought hot sauces to add flavor and spice to their food.
[165]
[166]
During slavery times, enslaved people had flavored their vegetables with bacon grease or other parts of the pig. This tradition continues today with
Black families
using
pig feet
, bacon grease, or turkey necks to flavor collard and turnip greens.
[167]
Cultural relevance
[
edit
]
Soul food restaurant in Texas
Soul food originated in the southern region of the US and is consumed by African-Americans across the nation. Traditional soul food cooking is seen as one of the ways enslaved Africans passed their traditions to their descendants once they were brought to the US. It is a cultural creation stemming from slavery and Native American and European influences.
[150]
[35]
Soul food recipes are popular in the South due to the accessibility and affordability of the ingredients.
[150]
[34]
Scholars have observed that while white Americans provided the material supplies for soul food dishes, the cooking techniques found in many of the dishes have been visibly influenced by the enslaved Africans themselves.
[35]
Dishes derived by slaves consisted of mostly vegetables and grains because slave owners felt more meat would cause the slave to become lethargic with less energy to tend to the crops.
The bountiful vegetables found in Africa were substituted in dishes down south with new leafy greens consisting of dandelion, turnip, and beet greens. Pork, more specifically hog, was introduced into several dishes in the form of cracklins from the skin, pig's feet, chitterlings, and lard used to increase the fat intake into vegetable dishes. Spices such as thyme, and bay leaf blended with onion and garlic gave dishes their own characteristics.
[153]
Red drinks are ubiquitous at African American social functions. When black people congregate for special occasions and food is present, a red drink will be found there. Any restaurant with a mostly black clientele serves at least one red drink. Red drinks are important in soul food culture because they represent social connections between friends and family, and a link with the
African diaspora
.
[168]
Newbell Puckett, a southern sociologist who documented African American folk beliefs in his 1926 study,
Folk Beliefs of the Southern Negro
,
[169]
suggested that there was cultural and historical continuity between African American culture and West African societies where red had been an important ritual and royal color for hundreds of years. There were two notable red drinks in West Africa, kola tea and
hibiscus tea
, by the time the Atlantic slave trade began. Kola tea was made from the nuts of West African trees, especially
Cola nitida
. Tea made from the dried red flowers of the hibiscus (
Hibiscus sabdariffa
), a plant related to okra, is used to make a tea called
bissap
, from the French
jus de bissap
. It is popular in Senegal and Gambia.
Bissap
was called sorrel tea or red sorrel in the Americas.
[168]
Figures such as LeRoi Jones (Amiri Baraka),
Elijah Muhammad
, and
Dick Gregory
played notable roles in shaping the conversation around soul food.
[170]
[150]
Muhammad and Gregory opposed soul food because they felt it was unhealthy and was slowly killing African-Americans.
[10]
They saw soul food as a remnant of oppression and felt it should be left behind. Many African-Americans were offended by the Nation of Islam's rejection of pork as it is a staple ingredient used to flavor many dishes.
[150]
Stokely Carmichael
also spoke out against soul food, claiming that it was not true African food due to its colonial and European influence.
[150]
Despite this, many voices in the Black Power Movement saw soul food as something African-Americans should take pride in and used it to distinguish African-Americans from white Americans.
[11]
Proponents of soul food embraced the concept and used it as a counterclaim to the argument that African-Americans had no culture or cuisine.
[35]
[150]
Soul food spread throughout the United States when African-Americans from the South moved to major cities across the country such as
Chicago
and
New York City
during the Great Migration. They brought with them the foods and traditions of the Southern United States, where they had been enslaved.
[6]
Later, the magazine
Ebony Jr!
was important in transmitting the cultural relevance of soul food dishes to middle-class African-American children who typically ate a more standard American diet.
[171]
Today Soul food is frequently found at religious rituals and social events such as funerals, fellowship, Thanksgiving, and Christmas in the black community.
[150]
[125]
[140]
Soul food is culturally similar to
Romani cuisine
in Europe.
[172]
Health concerns
[
edit
]
Soul food prepared traditionally and consumed in large amounts can be detrimental to one's health. Opponents of eating soul food have been vocal about health concerns surrounding the culinary traditions since the name was coined in the mid-20th century.
[173]
[174]
Soul food has been criticized for its high
starch
,
fat
,
sodium
,
cholesterol
, and
caloric content
, as well as the inexpensive and often low-quality nature of the ingredients such as
salted pork
and
cornmeal
. In light of this, soul food has been implicated by some in the disproportionately high rates of high blood pressure (
hypertension
),
type 2 diabetes
, clogged arteries (
atherosclerosis
),
stroke
, and
heart attack
suffered by African-Americans.
[175]
[176]
Figures who led discussions surrounding the negative impacts of soul food include Dr.
Alvenia Fulton
,
Dick Gregory
, and
Elijah Muhammad
.
[170]
[150]
On the other hand, critics and traditionalists have argued that attempts to make soul food healthier also make it less tasty, as well as less culturally/ethnically authentic.
[177]
There is also often a foundational difference in how health is perceived; perceptions of healthiness by consumers of soul food may differ from normal understandings in American culture.
[178]
The nutritional value of most processed foods, and not just those implicated in a traditional perception of soul food, has degraded as the agricultural system in the United States became industrialized, fueled by federal subsidies.
[179]
This urges a consideration of how concepts of racial authenticity evolve alongside changes in the structures that make some foods more available and accessible than others.
[180]
[181]
An important aspect of the preparation of soul food was the reuse of cooking
lard
. Because many cooks could not afford to buy new
shortening
to replace what they used, they would pour the liquefied cooking grease into a container. After cooling completely, the grease re-solidified and could be used again the next time the cook required lard.
[182]
With changing fashions and perceptions of "healthy" eating, some cooks may use preparation methods that differ from those of cooks who came before them: using liquid oil like
vegetable oil
or
canola oil
for frying and cooking, and using smoked
turkey
instead of
pork
, for example. Changes in hog farming techniques have also resulted in drastically leaner pork, in the 21st and late 20th centuries. Some cooks have even adapted recipes to include vegetarian alternatives to traditional ingredients, including
tofu
and
soy
-based analogues.
[183]
Several Black chefs have opened
vegan soul food
restaurants to cook healthier foods rooted in African American culture.
[184]
Others, such as Jenne Claiborne, author of the
Sweet Potato Soul Cookbook
, have chosen to start a
YouTube channel
and show people how to prepare healthier soul food.
[185]
Several of the ingredients included in soul food recipes have pronounced health benefits.
Collard
and other greens are rich sources of several
vitamins
(including
vitamin A
,
B
6
,
folic acid
or vitamin B
9
,
vitamin K
, and
C
), minerals (
manganese
,
iron
, and
calcium
),
fiber
, and small amounts of
omega-3 fatty acids
. They also contain a number of
phytonutrients
, which are thought to play a role in the prevention of
ovarian
and
breast cancers
.
[186]
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
The traditional preparation of soul food vegetables often consists of high temperatures or slow cooking methods, which can lead the water-soluble vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C and the B complex vitamins) to be destroyed or leached out into the water in which the greens are cooked. This water is often consumed and is known as
pot liquor
.
[125]
Because it contains micronutrients from the greens cooked in it, pot liquor contributes to the nutritional value of a meal when consumed.
[187]
Peas
and
legumes
are inexpensive sources of
protein
, and they also contain important vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
[188]
Dishes and ingredients
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"
"Soul Food" a brief history"
.
African American Registry
. Retrieved
2020-02-12
.
- ^
Moskin, Julia (2018-08-07).
"Is It Southern Food, or Soul Food?"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
2023-06-08
.
- ^
a
b
"An Illustrated History of Soul Food"
.
First We Feast
. Retrieved
14 March
2023
.
- ^
Ferguson, Sheila (1993).
Soul Food Classic Cuisine from the Deep South
. Grove Press. pp. 57?60.
ISBN
9781493013418
.
- ^
McKendrick, P.J. (15 December 2017).
"The Diversity of Soul Food - Global Foodways"
. Archived from
the original
on 6 December 2019
. Retrieved
30 July
2023
.
- ^
a
b
Wallach, Jennifer Jensen (2018).
Every Nation Has Its Dish: Black Bodies and Black Food in Twentieth-Century America
. UNC Press Books. pp. 109?111.
ISBN
978-1-4696-4522-3
.
- ^
"Soul Food"
.
Macaulay.cuny.edu
. Retrieved
November 6,
2023
.
- ^
Brownell, Kelly.
"Adrian Miller on the History of Soul Food"
.
World Food Policy Center
. Duke Sanford
. Retrieved
13 June
2024
.
- ^
Witt, Doris (1999).
Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity
. Oxford University Press. pp. 6?7.
ISBN
978-0-19-535498-0
.
- ^
a
b
Rouse, Carolyn Moxley (2004).
Engaged Surrender: African American Women and Islam
. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, London, England: University of California Press. p. 106.
ISBN
978-0-520-23794-0
.
- ^
a
b
Witt, Doris (1999).
Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity
. Oxford University Press. pp. 80?81.
ISBN
978-0-19-535498-0
.
- ^
Poe, Tracy N. (1999). "The Origins of Soul Food in Black Urban Identity: Chicago, 1915-1947".
American Studies International
. XXXVII No. 1 (February): 4?17.
- ^
Muhammad, Karyn (2024).
"How soul food became a staple in the Black community"
. Alabama State University. The Hornet Tribune Online
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
"Notable African American chefs"
.
Begley Library
. Schenectady County Community College
. Retrieved
2 June
2024
.
- ^
Kelly, Leslie.
"Celebrating National Soul Food Month With Celebrity Chef Carla"
.
www.forbes.com
. Forbes Newsletters
. Retrieved
14 June
2024
.
- ^
Holloway, Joseph.
"African Crops and Slave Cuisine"
.
Slave Rebellion Info
. Slave Rebellion Website
. Retrieved
31 May
2024
.
- ^
Davis, Donald (2006).
Southern United States: An Environmental History
. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 130.
ISBN
9781851097852
.
- ^
Horgan, John.
"Columbian Exchange"
.
www.worldhistory.org
. World History Encyclopedia
. Retrieved
6 June
2024
.
- ^
Addison, Sydney; Bryan, Kailey; Carter, Taylor; Del Tufo, J.T.; Diallo, Aissatou; Kinzey, Alyson.
African Americans and Southern Food
.
Mercer University
(Report).
hdl
:
10898/1521
. Retrieved
6 June
2024
.
- ^
Davis, Donald (2006).
Southern United States: An Environmental History
. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 130.
ISBN
9781851097852
.
- ^
Carney, Judith (2013).
"Seeds of Memory: Botanical Legacies of the African Diaspora"
(PDF)
.
African Ethnobotany in the Americas
: 15, 20
. Retrieved
6 June
2024
.
- ^
Twitty, Michael.
"Foodways of the Transatlantic Slave Trade"
.
www.masterclass.com
. Master Class
. Retrieved
6 June
2024
.
- ^
Twitty, Michael.
"How rice shaped the American South"
.
www.bbc.com
. BBC
. Retrieved
6 June
2024
.
- ^
Wilke, Carolyn.
"The Resistance and Ingenuity of the Cooks Who Lived in Slavery"
.
www.sapiens.org
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
"Soul Food in Dekalb A Tasty History"
(PDF)
.
Dekalb History Center
. Dekalb History Center
. Retrieved
14 June
2024
.
- ^
Twitty, Michael.
"The Unbearable Taste: Early African American Foodways"
.
Common Place: The Journal of Early American Life
. Common Place
. Retrieved
25 May
2024
.
- ^
"Soul food | Description, History, & Ingredients | Britannica"
.
www.britannica.com
. Retrieved
2023-07-30
.
- ^
"Food"
.
George Washington Mount Vernon
. George Washington Mount Vernon
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Soul Food - Oxtails
,
Nccah.ca
, PDF
- ^
"How Enslaved Africans Influenced American Diet"
.
www.learningenglish.voanews.com
. VOA Arts and Culture
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Holloway, Joseph (2005).
Africanisms in American Culture
. Indiana University Press. pp. 48?49.
ISBN
9780253217493
.
- ^
Miles, Angie.
"Soul food is closely tied to Black cultural identity"
.
www.vpm.org
. VPM National Public Radio (PBS)
. Retrieved
13 June
2024
.
- ^
Brownell, Kelly.
"Adrian Miller on the History of Soul Food"
.
World Food Policy Center
. Duke Sanford
. Retrieved
13 June
2024
.
- ^
a
b
Covey, Herbert.
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. pp. 105?110.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Whit, William C.; Hall, Robert L. (2007). Bower, Anne L. (ed.).
African American foodways: explorations of history and culture
. University of Illinois Press. pp.
34, 48
.
ISBN
9780252031854
.
OCLC
76961285
.
- ^
Demas, Antonia (2022-02-01).
"Celebrating Black History Month"
.
The Food Studies Institute
. Retrieved
2023-07-30
.
- ^
Braly, Anne (2020).
"Soul food: From the trauma of slavery came beautiful cuisine"
. Tennessee Lookout
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Baumann, Timothy (2009).
"The Web of Cultural Identity: A Case Study of African-American Identity and "Soul Food"
"
(PDF)
.
Tennessee Archaeology
.
4
(1?2): 72
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Baumann, Timothy (2009).
"The Web of Cultural Identity: A Case Study of African-American Identity and "Soul Food"
"
(PDF)
.
Tennessee Archaeology
.
4
: 72
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Opala, Joseph.
"The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierra Leone-American Connection"
.
Yale Macmillan Center
. Yale University
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
"The History of Successful Black Fishermen Dates Back Centuries"
.
www.pushblack.us
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Douglass, Frederick (1845).
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Written by Himself:
. THE ANTI-SLAVERY OFFICE. p. 10.
- ^
"The Food Sources of Enslaved Afro-Marylanders"
.
www.hmdb.org
. Historical Marker Database
. Retrieved
13 June
2024
.
- ^
Willhoite, Kenneth (2018).
The Soul Food Museum Story Celebrating 400 Years of Culinary Arts Hospitality and Agriculture
. Arthur House.
ISBN
9781546225140
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Bower, Anne (2009).
African American Foodways Explorations of History and Culture
. University of Illinois Press. p. 162.
ISBN
9780252076305
.
- ^
"Enslaved Fishermen and Mariners in Virginia"
.
www.encyclopediavirginia.org
. Encyclopedia Virginia, Virginia Humanities
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Schafer, Leanna.
"South Yard Dwellings: Food and Cooking"
.
www.montpelier.org
. James Madison Montpelier
. Retrieved
25 May
2024
.
- ^
"A Day in the Life of an Enslaved Cook in 1799"
.
www.mountvernon.org
. George Washington Mount Vernon
. Retrieved
30 May
2024
.
- ^
"Mid-19th Century Plant Uses"
(PDF)
.
www.nps.gov/bowa
. The National Park Service
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
"A 19th Century Slave Diet"
(PDF)
.
www.nps.gov/bowa
. The National Park Service
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
"Mid-19th Century Plant Uses"
(PDF)
.
www.nps.gov/bowa
. The National Park Service
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Chambers, Douglass (2005).
Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia
. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 164?168.
ISBN
9781617034374
.
- ^
"Enslaved Igbo and the Foundation of Afro-Virginia Slave Culture and Society"
.
www.h-net.org
. Humanities and Social Science
. Retrieved
14 June
2024
.
- ^
Chambers, Douglass (2005).
Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia
. University Press of Mississippi. p. 166.
ISBN
9781578067060
.
- ^
Jackson, Frank.
"Our Sustenance: From Scraps to Soul Food, a Positive Institution"
.
www.mappmagazine.com
. Mapp Magazine
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
"The Culinary Legacy of Soul Food: Shaping American Cuisine"
.
Community Coalition
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
"The Life of James Hemings"
.
www.monticello.org
. The Jefferson Monticello
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Yursik, Patrice.
"Did An Enslaved Chef Bring Macaroni And Cheese To America? The Truth Behind Everyone's Favorite Side Dish"
.
www.essence.com
. Essence Magazine
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
Holloway, Joseph.
"African Crops and Slave Cuisine"
.
Slave Rebellion Info
. Slave Rebellion Website
. Retrieved
31 May
2024
.
- ^
White, Brenda.
"Black History, Soul Food's Origin"
.
www.dvidshub.net
. Defense Visual Information Distribution Service / U.S. Department of Defense
. Retrieved
30 May
2024
.
- ^
"All the slaves ate together: African American foodways and the Colonial Era"
.
www.nlm.nih.gov
. National Library of Medicine
. Retrieved
30 May
2024
.
- ^
"All The Slaves Ate Together: African American Foodways in the Colonial Era"
.
www.nlm.nih.gov
. National Library of Medicine
. Retrieved
30 May
2024
.
- ^
"Origins of Soul Food"
.
Suny Schenectady County Community College
. Begley Library
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
Lamback, Briona.
"How Molasses and Sorghum Fueled the Slave Trade"
.
www.pushblack.us
. PushBlack
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
Addison, Sydney.
"African Americans and Southern Food"
.
Mercer University Libraries Institutional Repository
. Mercer University
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 55.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 59.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Blassingame, John (1972).
The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South
. Oxford University Press. p. 39, 155-158.
ISBN
9780195025637
.
- ^
Brown, Shayla (2020).
"Slavery, Soul Food and the Power of Black Women"
. North Jersey News
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
Lowery, Sharelle (2014).
"
"Chitlin's From Slave Food to Delicacy The Black American Kitchen"
. The Bay State Banner
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
Stewart, Vernetta.
"In Defense of Chitterlings"
.
Edible Northeast Florida
. Edible Northeast Florida
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 39?42, 89.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 89?90, 199?200.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Twitty, Michael (2015).
"Barbecue is an American Tradition ? of Enslaved Africans and Native Americans"
. The Guardian
. Retrieved
4 June
2024
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 104?105, 129, 171?172, 174.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 89, 125.
ISBN
9780313374982
.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 42.
ISBN
9780313374982
.
- ^
Watson, Robin (2020).
"1866 African-American cookbook from Michigan woman offers voice from the past"
. The Detroit News
. Retrieved
4 June
2024
.
- ^
West, Kai (2022).
"Buckra: Whiteness and Porgy and Bess"
.
Journal of the American Musicological Society
.
75
(2): 319?377
. Retrieved
10 June
2024
.
- ^
Confections delicacies sweets from the Old Slave Mart
. Old Slave Mart. 1900. p. 5.
- ^
"History of Benne in the Lowcountry"
.
www.charlestonspecialtyfoods.com
. Charleston Specialty Foods
. Retrieved
10 June
2024
.
- ^
"Beaufort's Reconstruction Era National Historical Park"
.
South Carolina Lowcountry Resorts and Lands
. South Carolina Lowcountry Resorts and Lands
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
Brack, Andy.
"Emancipation Day celebrations"
.
www.statehousereport.com
. State House Report
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"This First Day of January"
.
William L. Clements Library
. University of Michigan
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
Forten, Charlotte (1988).
The Journals of Charlotte Forten Grimke
. Oxford University Press. p. 431.
- ^
Moss, Robert (2010).
"BBQ Evolution"
. Charleston City Paper
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
King Taylor, Susie (1902).
Reminiscences of My Life in Camp with the 33d United States Colored Troops Late 1st S. C. Volunteers
. Harvard University. p. 18.
- ^
Covey, Herbert; Eisnach, Dwight (2009).
What the Slaves Ate Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives
. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 89?90, 199?200.
ISBN
9798216164265
.
- ^
Twitty, Michael (2015).
"Barbecue is an American tradition ? of enslaved Africans and Native Americans"
. The Guardian
. Retrieved
4 June
2024
.
- ^
"Juneteenth: A Celebration of Freedom"
.
www.nps.gov
. The National Park Service
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"The Meaning and History of Juneteenth Foods"
.
www.pbs.org
. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"Juneteenth"
.
National Museum of African American History and Culture
. Smithsonian Institution
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"Tastes of Resilience"
.
National Museum of African American History and Culture
. Smithsonian Institution
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
Ayele Djossa, Christina.
"The Story Behind Red-Hued Juneteenth Food and Drink"
.
www.atlasobscura.com
. The Atlanta Obscure
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
Wallach (2015).
Dethroning the Deceitful Pork Chop: Rethinking African American Foodways from Slavery to Obama
. University of Arkansas Press. pp. 200?210, 211?220.
ISBN
9781610755689
.
- ^
Ferguson, Sheila (1993).
Soul Food: Classic Cuisine from the Deep South
. Grove Press.
ISBN
9780802132833
.
- ^
"2023 Black History Month: Family Traditions: Feeding the Spirit and Soul"
.
www.dcps.libguides.com
. District of Columbia Public Schools
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Opie, F.D. (2008).
Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America
. Columbia University Press. p. 35.
ISBN
9780231146395
.
- ^
"Rediscovering the First Black Cookbook"
.
- ^
Jeffries, Fran (2024).
"Chitlin' Circuit: Black performers' soulful showcase during segregation"
. The Atlanta-Journal Constitution
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
Martin, Roland; Ostberg, Rene.
"Chitlin Circuit"
.
www.britannica.com
. Encyclopedia Britannica
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
"Sylvia's Restaurant - A Harlem Institution Since 1962"
.
www.harlemamerica.com
. Harlem America
. Retrieved
13 June
2024
.
- ^
Jones, James.
"Sylvia Woods (1926-2012)"
.
www.blackpast.org
. Black Past
. Retrieved
13 June
2024
.
- ^
"Fried Dough History"
. Archived from
the original
on October 12, 2008.
- ^
Miller, Adrian (2013).
Soul Food: The Surprising Story of an American Cuisine, One Plate at a Time
. University of North Carolina Press. p. 53.
ISBN
9781469607634
.
- ^
Braga, Brunno (2023).
"Culinary Gems: 7 Must Try Black-Owned Restaurants in Baltimore"
. Travel Noire
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
Opie, Frederick (2008).
Hog and Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America
. Columbia University Press.
ISBN
9780231146395
.
- ^
Thomas, Amelia.
"A Harlem soul food fix"
.
www.bbc.com
. BBC
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
Miller, Adrian (2013).
Soul Food: The Surprising Story of an American Cuisine, One Plate at a Time
. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 104?105.
ISBN
9781469607634
.
- ^
Miller, Adrian.
"Inside the 'Chitlin Circuit', a Jim Crow-Era Safe Space for Black Performers"
.
www.atlasobscura.com
. Atlas Abscura
. Retrieved
9 June
2024
.
- ^
Singh, Rachel.
"The Restaurants that Fueled the Civil Rights Movement"
.
Atlanta History Center
. Atlanta History Center
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Goldmon, Camille.
"Paschal's Restaurant"
.
Georgia Encyclopedia
. Emory University
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Miller, Adriane.
"Black Restaurants that Fed the Civil Rights Movement"
.
www.southernliving.com
. Southern Living
. Retrieved
31 May
2024
.
- ^
"The People's Place: Soul Food Restaurants and Reminiscences from the Civil Rights Era to Today"
.
Pikes Peak Library District
. Pikes Peak Library District
. Retrieved
2 June
2024
.
- ^
Greene, Lydia.
"Soul Food Was at the Heart of the Civil Rights Movement in Montgomery"
.
www.wideopencountry.com
. Wide Open Country
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Camerino, Taria.
"A Seat at the Table with Evelyn J. Frazier"
.
Atlanta Convention & Visitors Bureau
. Atlanta Convention & Visitors Bureau
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Cintron, Daniela.
"Atlanta's Culinary Evolution: Unveiling Michelin Guide's Love for the City"
.
Atlanta Convention & Visitors Bureau
. Atlanta Convention & Visitors Bureau
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Ruane, Laura (2014).
"Black-owned restaurants nourished the activist soul"
. USA Today
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
Draughn, Janay.
"(Southern) Black Women's Presence in Invisibility: Miss Georgia Gilmore & The Club from Nowhere"
.
www.mdcinc.org
. MDC
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
"The Green Book Sites Were A Welcome Relief From The Ominous Presence of Jim Crow"
.
The Negro Motorist Green Book
. Smithsonian Institution
. Retrieved
2 June
2024
.
- ^
"The Importance of "The Green Book: Guide to Freedom"
"
.
United Way of Central Indiana
. United Way of Central Indiana
. Retrieved
2 June
2024
.
- ^
Stewart, Kayla.
"The Spirit of Soul Food: More Than Just Shrimp and Grits"
.
Public Broadcasting SoCal
. PBS SoCal
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
"The Spirit of Soul Food: Race, Faith, and Food Justice"
.
Memphis Theological Seminary
. Memphis Theological Seminary
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
a
b
c
Twitty, Michael
(2017).
The cooking gene : a journey through African American culinary history in the Old South
(First ed.). New York, NY.
ISBN
9780062379290
.
OCLC
971130586
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
"Biography: Edna Lewis"
.
Biography: Edna Lewis
. Retrieved
2022-07-12
.
- ^
Vibration Cooking: or, The Travel Notes of a Geechee Girl
.
- ^
Witt, Doris (1999).
Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity
. Oxford University Press. p. 219.
ISBN
978-0-19-535498-0
.
- ^
Perry, Michiel.
"National Council of Negro Women: Cookbooks to add to your coffee table"
.
www.blacksouthernbelle.com
. Black Southern Belle
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"African American Cookbooks"
.
Vanderbilt Library and Exhibition
. Vanderbilt University
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"The Historical Cookbook of the American Negro"
.
Vanderbilt Library and Exhibition
. Vanderbilt University.
- ^
Harris, Jessica (2011).
High on the Hog: A Culinary Journey from Africa to America
. Bloomsbury.
ISBN
9781596913950
.
- ^
"High on the Hog: How African American Cuisine Transformed America"
.
www.docnyc.net
. DOCNYC
. Retrieved
2 June
2024
.
- ^
Twitty, Michael (2018).
The Cooking Gene: A Journey Through African American Culinary History in the Old South
. Harper Collins.
ISBN
9780062876577
.
- ^
Meggett, Emily (2022).
Gullah Geechee Home Cooking: Recipes from the Matriarch of Edisto Island
. ABRAMS.
ISBN
9781647006907
.
- ^
Tsioulcas, Anastasia.
"For Gullah Geechee chef Emily Meggett, cooking was about heart"
.
South Carolina Public Radio
. NPR
. Retrieved
4 June
2024
.
- ^
Key, Marcus (2024).
"Muskegon woman to be first Black woman in U.S. to present soul food at national chef's convention"
. 13abc on your side
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
Barna, Stephanie (2012).
"Chef BJ Dennis delves into his people's Gullah Geechee past to inspire his future"
. Charleston City Paper
. Retrieved
4 June
2024
.
- ^
Sullivan, Marian.
"We're All Ears"
.
Charleston City Magazine
. Charleston City Magazine
. Retrieved
4 June
2024
.
- ^
a
b
c
Hall, Robert L. (2012). Chambers, Douglas B.; Watson, Kenneth (eds.).
The Past Is Not Dead
. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. pp. 292, 294, 297, 305.
ISBN
9781617033056
.
- ^
"How Enslaved Africans Influenced American Diet"
.
www.learningenglish.voanews.com
. VOA Arts and Culture
. Retrieved
24 May
2024
.
- ^
"Rice in the Lowcountry"
.
Lowcountry Digital History Initiative
. College of Charleston
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
Carney, Judith Ann (2009-06-30).
Black rice: the African origins of rice cultivation in the Americas
. Cambridge, Massachusetts.
ISBN
9780674029217
.
OCLC
657619002
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Whit, William (1999).
"Soul Food as Cultural Creation"
.
Journal for the Study of Food and Society
.
3
(1): 40
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Jao, Carren.
"A brief look at Black American history told through 10 food traditions"
.
www.abqjournal.com
. Albuquerque Journal
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
Smith Miles, Suzannah.
"Hoppin' John"
.
www.charlestonmag.com
. Charleston Magazine
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
"Discover the History of Charleston in Three Mouthwatering Meals"
.
Smithsonian Magazine
. Smithsonian Institution
. Retrieved
25 May
2024
.
- ^
"Origins of Soul Food"
.
SUNY Schenectady
. Begley Library
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
"Food History and Family Travel: Rice Culture and Black Heritage in Berkeley County, SC"
.
www.blacksouthernbelle.com
. Black Southern Belle
. Retrieved
3 June
2024
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Opie, Frederick Douglass (2008-10-08).
Hog & Hominy: Soul Food from Africa to America
. New York.
ISBN
9780231517973
.
OCLC
648458580
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Batey, Nicole (2021).
"Soul food, African culture embedded in American cuisine"
. Afro the Black Media Authority
. Retrieved
1 June
2024
.
- ^
"Barbecue is more American than you think... it is a Native American culinary art"
.
Sofrito for Your Soul
. Retrieved
2019-06-26
.
- ^
a
b
Arrington, Kathye Edwina (3 February 2013). "History of "Soul Food"
" (Document).
Binghamton, New York
: Press & Sun-Bulletin.
ProQuest
1283537628
.
- ^
Dragonwagon, Crescent (2007).
The Cornbread Gospels
. Workman Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-7611-1916-6
.
- ^
X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Grove Press, 6. 1966
- ^
Dirks, Robert.
"What Early Dietary Studies of African Americans Tell Us About Soul Foods"
(PDF)
.
Research Gate
: 6
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Opala, Joseph.
"Black Seminoles?Gullahs Who Escaped From Slavery"
(PDF)
.
The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierre Leone Connection
. Yale University
. Retrieved
26 August
2022
.
- ^
Harris, Jessica (2011).
High on the Hog: A Culinary Journey from Africa to America
. Bloomsbury. p. 59.
ISBN
9781596913950
.
- ^
Robertson, Ray Von (2008).
"Estelusti Marginality: A Qualitative Examination of the Black Seminole"
(PDF)
.
The Journal of Pan African Studies
.
2
(4): 70
. Retrieved
6 April
2024
.
- ^
Hudson, Charles (1976). "A Conquered People".
The Southeastern Indians
. The University of Tennessee Press. pp. 498?99.
ISBN
978-0-87049-248-8
.
- ^
Glitner, Scott (2006). Glave, Dianne D.; Stoll, Mark (eds.).
"To love the wind and the rain": African Americans and environmental history
. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 21?36.
ISBN
9780822972907
.
OCLC
878132911
.
- ^
Hutcherson, Aaron.
"The Seasoning That Inspires Salty Looks and Kanye Hooks"
.
www.tastecooking.com
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Collette, Abby (2021).
Body and Soul Food
. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 314?315.
ISBN
9780593336182
.
- ^
Leckey, Ryan.
"Soul Food Recipes"
.
www.wnep.com
. 16WNEP
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Lumpkins, Charles.
"Soul Food"
.
Oxford African American Studies Center
. Oxford University
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
"Slave trade: How African foods influenced modern American cuisine"
.
www.un.org
. United Nations
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Thomas, Clarence.
"Soul food roots: West Africa in Central Georgia kitchens"
.
Macon Magazine
. Macon Magazine
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
a
b
Miller, Adrian (2013).
Soul Food
. pp. 223?230.
- ^
{{cite web |last1=Morrisey |first1=Larry |title=Niles Newbell Puckett [[!}} (1897?1967) Scholar |url=
https://mississippiencyclopedia.org/entries/niles-newbell-puckett/
|website=Mississippi Encyclopedia |access-date=9 June 2024 |date=April 14, 2018}}
- ^
a
b
Witt, Doris (1999).
Black Hunger: Food and the Politics of U.S. Identity
. Oxford University Press. p. 14.
ISBN
978-0-19-535498-0
.
- ^
Henderson, Laretta (Winter 2007). "
"Ebony Jr!" and "Soul Food": The Construction of Middle-Class African American Identity through the Use of Traditional Southern Foodways".
Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States (MELUS)
.
32
(4): 81?97.
JSTOR
30029833
.
- ^
"African Americans and the Gypsies: A cultural relationship formed through hardships"
. 27 September 2013.
- ^
"Soul food | Description, History, & Ingredients | Britannica"
.
- ^
Ford, Alexander.
"Food from the soul: A history of African American culture and nutrition"
.
www.thedo.osteopathic.org
. American Osteopathic Association
. Retrieved
20 May
2024
.
- ^
Singh, Maanvi S. (2 October 2018).
"Southern Diet Blamed For High Rates Of Hypertension Among Black Americans"
.
NPR
. Retrieved
7 August
2022
.
- ^
Belle, Genesis (Spring 2009).
"Can the African-American Diet be Made Healthier Without Giving up Culture ? York College / CUNY"
.
www.york.cuny.edu
.
5
(2)
. Retrieved
7 August
2022
.
- ^
Jonsson, Patrick (February 6, 2006).
"Backstory: Southern discomfort food"
.
The Christian Science Monitor
.
The Christian Science Publishing Society
. Retrieved
2006-11-09
.
- ^
Joshanloo, Mohsen; Van De Vliert, Evert; Jose, Paul E. (2021).
"Four Fundamental Distinctions in Conceptions of Wellbeing Across Cultures"
.
The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Education
. pp. 675?703.
doi
:
10.1007/978-3-030-64537-3_26
.
ISBN
978-3-030-64536-6
.
S2CID
237932558
.
- ^
Belasco, Warren (2008).
Food: The Key Concepts
. Berg.
ISBN
978-1845206734
.
- ^
Julier, Alice (2008).
The Political Economy of Obesity: The Fat Pay All
. Food and Culture: A Reader: Routledge. pp. 482?499.
ISBN
978-0415977777
.
- ^
Guthman, Julie (2011).
Weighing In: Obesity, Food Justice, and the Limits of Capitalism
. University California Press.
ISBN
978-0520266254
.
- ^
Healthy soul food ideas and recipes
US News January 26, 2017
- ^
Shelf, Angela.
"African Vegetarian Recipes : The Ethnic Vegetarian"
. Enotalone.com
. Retrieved
2009-06-20
.
- ^
Carter, Christopher.
"Is Black Veganism the Future of Soul Food"
.
www.zocalopublicsquare.org
. Zocalo Public Square
. Retrieved
8 June
2024
.
- ^
Givens, Dana.
"Meet 5 Black Women Paving the Way for Vegan Soul Food"
.
Essence Magazine
. Essence Magazine
. Retrieved
26 May
2024
.
- ^
"Collard greens"
. WHFoods. 2006-05-04
. Retrieved
2009-06-20
.
- ^
Aubrey, Allison (7 August 2013).
"Pot Liquor: A Southern Tip To Save Nutritious Broth From Greens"
.
NPR
. Retrieved
3 January
2022
.
- ^
"Beans and pulses in your diet"
. 27 April 2018.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Huges, Marvalene H.
Soul, Black Women, and Food
. Ed. Carole Counihan and Penny van Esterik. New York: Routledge, 1997.
- Bowser, Pearl and Jean Eckstein, A Pinch of Soul, Avon, New York, 1970
- Counihan, Carol and Penny Van Esterik editors, Food and Culture, A Reader, Routledge, New York, 1997
- Harris, Jessica, The Welcome Table ? African American Heritage Cooking, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1996
- Mitchell, Patricia (1998).
Plantation Row slave cabin cooking: the roots of soul food
. Patricia B. Mitchell foodways publications. Chatham, VA: P.B. Mitchell.
ISBN
978-0925117892
.
- Root, Waverley and Richard de Rochemont, Eating in America, A History, William Morrow, New York, 1976
- Glenn, Gwendolyn, "American Visions", Southern Secrets From Edna Lewis, February?March, 1997
- Puckett, Susan, "Restaurant and Institutions", Soul Food Revival, February 1, 1997
External links
[
edit
]
Look up
soul food
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Soul food
.
|
---|
History
| |
---|
Culture
| |
---|
Notable people
| |
---|
Education, science
and technology
| |
---|
Religion
| |
---|
Political movements
| |
---|
Civic and economic
groups
| |
---|
Sports
| | Athletic associations
and conferences
| |
---|
|
---|
Ethnic subdivisions
| |
---|
Demographics
| |
---|
Languages
| |
---|
By state/city
| |
---|
Diaspora
| |
---|
Lists
| |
---|
|
|
---|
Historical
| |
---|
Regional
| |
---|
Ethnic
| |
---|
List articles
| |
---|
Miscellaneous
| |
---|
Drinks
| |
---|
|