One of the six principal organs of the UN
United Nations Security Council
-
Arabic
:
| ???? ????? ????? ???????
|
---|
Chinese
:
| ?合?安全理事?
|
---|
French
:
| Conseil de Securite des Nations Unies
|
---|
Russian
:
| Совет Безопасности Организации Объединённых Наций
|
---|
Spanish
:
| Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas
|
---|
|
|
Abbreviation
| UNSC
|
---|
Formation
| 24 October 1945
|
---|
Type
| Principal organ
|
---|
Legal status
| Active
|
---|
Headquarters
| New York City
, U.S.
|
---|
Membership
| |
---|
Presidency
| Mozambique (May 2024)
|
---|
Parent organization
| United Nations
|
---|
Website
| un.org/securitycouncil
|
---|
African States (3)
Asia-Pacific States (3)
Eastern European States (2)
Latin American and Caribbean States (2)
Western European and Other States (5)
|
The
United Nations Security Council
(
UNSC
) is one of the
six principal organs
of the
United Nations
(UN)
[1]
and is charged with ensuring
international peace and security
,
[2]
recommending the admission of new
UN members
to the
General Assembly
,
[3]
and approving any changes to the
UN Charter
.
[4]
Its powers as outlined in the United Nations Charter include establishing
peacekeeping
operations, enacting
international sanctions
, and authorizing
military action
. The UNSC is the only UN body with authority to issue
resolutions
that are binding on member states.
Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created after
World War II
to address the failings of the
League of Nations
in maintaining
world peace
. It held its first session on 17 January 1946 but was largely paralyzed in the following decades by the
Cold War
between the United States and the Soviet Union (and their allies). Nevertheless, it authorized military interventions in the
Korean War
and the
Congo Crisis
and peacekeeping missions in
Cyprus
,
West New Guinea
, and the
Sinai Peninsula
. With the
collapse of the Soviet Union
,
UN peacekeeping
efforts increased dramatically in scale, with the Security Council authorizing major military and peacekeeping missions in
Kuwait
,
Namibia
,
Cambodia
,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
,
Rwanda
,
Somalia
,
Sudan
, and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
.
The Security Council consists of
fifteen members
, of which
five are permanent
:
[5]
China
,
France
,
Russia
, the
United Kingdom
, and the
United States
. These were the
great powers
that were the
victors of World War II
(or their successor states). Permanent members can
veto
(block) any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states to the United Nations or nominees for the office of
Secretary-General
. This veto right does not carry over into any General Assembly or
emergency special sessions of the General Assembly
[
citation needed
]
matters or votes. The other ten members are elected on a regional basis for a term of two years. The body's
presidency
rotates monthly among its members.
Resolutions
of the Security Council are typically enforced by
UN peacekeepers
, which consist of military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of November 2021
[update]
, there have been 12 peacekeeping missions with over 87,000 personnel from 121 countries, with a total annual budget of approximately $6.3 billion.
[6]
History
[
edit
]
Background and creation
[
edit
]
In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as the
International Committee of the Red Cross
and the
Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
.
Following the catastrophic loss of life in
World War I
, the
Paris Peace Conference
established the
League of Nations
to maintain harmony between the nations.
This organization successfully resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which would later be absorbed into the UN.
However, the League lacked representation for colonial peoples (then half the world's population) and significant participation from several major powers, including the US, the
USSR
, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act against the 1931
Japanese invasion of Manchuria
, the
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
in 1935, the 1937
Japanese occupation of China
, and Nazi expansions under
Adolf Hitler
that escalated into
World War II
.
On New Year's Day 1942, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister
Churchill
,
Maxim Litvinov
of the USSR, and
T. V. Soong
of the
Republic of China
, signed a short document, based on the
Atlantic Charter
and the
London Declaration
,
[11]
[12]
which later came to be known as the
United Nations Declaration
. The next day the representatives of 22 other nations added their signatures.
[13]
The term "United Nations" was first officially used when 26 governments had signed the Declaration. By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had signed.
The term "
Four Powers
" was coined to refer to the four major Allied countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China.
[15]
and became the foundation of an executive branch of the United Nations, the Security Council.
Following the 1943
Moscow Conference
and
Tehran Conference
, in mid-1944, the delegations from the Allied "
Big Four
", the
Soviet Union
, the UK, the US and the
Republic of China
, met for the
Dumbarton Oaks Conference
in Washington, D.C. to negotiate the UN's structure,
[17]
and the composition of the UN Security Council quickly became the dominant issue. France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the UK and US were selected as permanent members of the Security Council; the US attempted to add
Brazil
as a sixth member but was opposed by the heads of the Soviet and British delegations.
The most contentious issue at Dumbarton and in successive talks proved to be the veto rights of permanent members. The Soviet delegation argued that each nation should have an absolute veto that could block matters from even being discussed, while the British argued that nations should not be able to veto resolutions on disputes to which they were a party. At the
Yalta Conference
of February 1945, the American, British and Russian delegations agreed that each of the "Big Five" could veto any action by the council, but not procedural resolutions, meaning that the permanent members could not prevent debate on a resolution.
On 25 April 1945, the
UN Conference on International Organization
began in San Francisco, attended by fifty governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the
United Nations Charter
.
[20]
At the conference,
H. V. Evatt
of the Australian delegation pushed to further restrict the veto power of Security Council permanent members.
Due to the fear that rejecting the strong veto would cause the conference's failure, his proposal was defeated twenty votes to ten.
The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.
[20]
On 17 January 1946, the Security Council met for the first time at
Church House, Westminster
, in London, United Kingdom.
[23]
Subsequently, during the 1946?1951 period it conducted sessions at the United Nation's interim headquarters in
Lake Success, New York
, which were televised live on
CBS
by the journalist
Edmund Chester
in 1949.
[24]
[25]
[26]
Cold War
[
edit
]
The Security Council was largely paralyzed in its early decades by the
Cold War
between the US and USSR and their allies and the Council generally was only able to intervene in unrelated conflicts.
(A notable exception was the 1950 Security Council resolution authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the
North Korean invasion of South Korea
, passed in the
absence of the USSR
.)
[20]
In 1956, the
first UN peacekeeping force
was established to end the
Suez Crisis
;
[20]
however, the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following
that country's revolution
.
Cold War divisions also paralysed the Security Council's
Military Staff Committee
, which had been formed by Articles 45?47 of the UN Charter to oversee UN forces and create UN military bases. The committee continued to exist on paper but largely abandoned its work in the mid-1950s.
[31]
In 1960, the UN deployed the
United Nations Operation in the Congo
(UNOC), the largest military force of its early decades, to restore order to the breakaway
State of Katanga
, restoring it to the control of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
by 1964.
However, the Security Council found itself bypassed in favour of direct negotiations between the superpowers in some of the decade's larger conflicts, such as the
Cuban Missile Crisis
or the
Vietnam War
.
Focusing instead on smaller conflicts without an immediate Cold War connection, the Security Council deployed the
United Nations Temporary Executive Authority
in
West New Guinea
in 1962 and the
United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
in 1964, the latter of which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.
On 25 October 1971, over US opposition, but with the support of many
Third World
nations, along with the
Socialist People's Republic of Albania
, the mainland, communist
People's Republic of China
replaced
Republic of China
with a seat on the Security Council; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization.
With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the
Middle East
,
Vietnam
and
Kashmir
, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its budget for peacekeeping.
Post-Cold War
[
edit
]
After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years than it had in its previous four decades.
Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold.
[39]
The UN negotiated an end to the
Salvadoran Civil War
, launched a successful
peacekeeping mission in Namibia
, and oversaw democratic elections in post-
apartheid
South Africa and post-
Khmer Rouge
Cambodia.
In 1991, the Security Council demonstrated its renewed vigor by condemning the Iraqi
invasion of Kuwait
on the same day of the attack and later authorizing a
US-led coalition
that successfully repulsed the Iraqis.
Undersecretary-General
Brian Urquhart
later described the hopes raised by these successes as a "false renaissance" for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed.
Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another, in the early 1990s, the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious crises within nations such as Haiti, Mozambique and the former Yugoslavia.
The
UN mission to Bosnia
faced "worldwide ridicule" for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing.
[44]
In 1994, the
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
failed to intervene in the
Rwandan genocide
in the face of Security Council indecision.
In the late 1990s, UN-authorized international interventions took a wider variety of forms. The
UN mission
in the 1991?2002
Sierra Leone Civil War
was supplemented by British
Royal Marines
and the UN-authorized
2001 invasion of Afghanistan
was overseen by
NATO
.
In 2003, the US
invaded Iraq
despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of the organization's effectiveness.
In the same decade, the Security Council intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the
War in Darfur
in Sudan and the
Kivu conflict
in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In 2013,
an internal review
of UN actions in
the final battles
of the
Sri Lankan Civil War
in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered "systemic failure".
[48]
In November/December 2014,
Egypt
presented a motion proposing an expansion of the NPT (
non-Proliferation Treaty
), to include
Israel
and
Iran
; this proposal was due to increasing hostilities and destruction in the Middle-East connected to the Syrian Conflict as well as others. All members of the Security Council are signatory to the NPT, and all permanent members are
nuclear weapons states
.
[49]
Role
[
edit
]
The UN's role in international
collective security
is defined by the UN Charter, which authorizes the Security Council to investigate any situation threatening international peace; recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute; call upon other member nations to completely or partially interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal and radio communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and enforce its decisions militarily, or by any means necessary. The Security Council also recommends the new Secretary-General to the General Assembly and recommends new states for admission as
member states of the United Nations
.
[50]
[51]
The Security Council has traditionally interpreted its mandate as covering only military security, though US Ambassador
Richard Holbrooke
controversially persuaded the body to pass a resolution on
HIV/AIDS in Africa
in 2000.
Under
Chapter VI
of the Charter, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes", the Security Council "may investigate any dispute, or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute". The Council may "recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment" if it determines that the situation might endanger international peace and security.
[53]
These recommendations are generally considered to not be binding, as they lack an enforcement mechanism.
[54]
A minority of scholars, such as
Stephen Zunes
, have argued that resolutions made under Chapter VI are "still directives by the Security Council and differ only in that they do not have the same stringent enforcement options, such as the use of military force".
Under
Chapter VII
, the council has broader power to decide what measures are to be taken in situations involving "threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression."
[31]
In such situations, the council is not limited to recommendations but may take action, including the use of armed force "to maintain or restore international peace and security."
[31]
This was the legal basis for UN armed action in Korea in 1950 during the Korean War and the use of coalition forces in Iraq and Kuwait in 1991 and Libya in 2011.
[57]
Decisions taken under Chapter VII, such as
economic sanctions
, are binding on UN members; the Security Council is the only UN body with authority to issue binding resolutions.
[58]
The
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
recognizes that the Security Council has authority to refer cases to the Court in which the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction.
[60]
The Council exercised this power for the first time in March 2005, when it referred to the Court "the situation prevailing in
Darfur
since 1 July 2002"; since Sudan is not a party to the Rome Statute, the Court could not otherwise have exercised jurisdiction.
[61]
[62]
The Security Council made its second such referral in February 2011 when it asked the ICC to investigate the Libyan government's violent response to the
Libyan Civil War
.
[63]
Security Council Resolution 1674
, adopted on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005
World Summit Outcome Document
regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity".
[64]
The Security Council reaffirmed this
responsibility to protect
in
Resolution 1706
on 31 August of that year.
These resolutions commit the Security Council to protect civilians in an armed conflict, including taking action against genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity.
Members
[
edit
]
Permanent members
[
edit
]
The Security Council's five permanent members, below, have the power to
veto
any substantive resolution; this allows a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution, but not to prevent or end debate.
At the UN's founding in 1945, the five permanent members of the Security Council were the
Republic of China
,
France
(represented by the
Provisional Government of the French Republic
), the
Soviet Union
, the United Kingdom, and the United States. There have been two major seat changes since then.
China's seat
was originally held by
Chiang Kai-shek
's
Nationalist Government
, the Republic of China. However, the Nationalists were forced to retreat to the
island of Taiwan
in 1949, during the
Chinese Civil War
. The
Chinese Communist Party
assumed control of
mainland China
, thenceforth known as the People's Republic of China. In 1971,
General Assembly Resolution 2758
recognized the People's Republic as the
rightful representative of China
in the UN and gave it the seat on the Security Council that had been held by the Republic of China, which was expelled from the UN altogether with
no opportunity for membership as a separate nation
.
After the
dissolution of the Soviet Union
in 1991, the Russian Federation was recognized as the
legal successor state
of the Soviet Union and maintained the latter's position on the Security Council.
The five permanent members of the Security Council were the victorious powers in World War II
and have maintained the world's most powerful military forces ever since. They annually topped the
list of countries with the highest military expenditures
.
[70]
In 2013, they spent over US$1 trillion combined on defence, accounting for over 55% of global military expenditures (the US alone accounting for over 35%).
[70]
They are also among the world's
largest arms exporters
[71]
and are the only nations officially recognized as "
nuclear-weapon states
" under the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT), though there are other states known or believed to be in possession of nuclear weapons.
[
citation needed
]
The block of Western democratic and generally aligned permanent members (France, the UK and the US) is styled as the "P3".
Veto power
[
edit
]
Under
Article 27
of the UN Charter, Security Council decisions on all substantive matters require the affirmative votes of three-fifths (i.e. nine) of the members. A negative vote or a "veto" by a permanent member prevents adoption of a proposal, even if it has received the required votes.
Abstention is not regarded as a veto in most cases, though all five permanent members must vote for adopting any amendment of the UN Charter or any recommendation of the admission of a new UN member state.
[58]
Procedural matters cannot be vetoed, so the veto right cannot be used to avoid discussion of an issue. The same holds for certain decisions that directly regard permanent members.
Most vetoes have been used for blocking a candidate for Secretary-General or the admission of a member state, not in critical international security situations.
[72]
In the negotiations leading up to the creation of the UN, the veto power was opposed by many small countries and was in fact forced on them by the veto nations?the United States, the United Kingdom, China, France, and the Soviet Union?by threatening that the UN would otherwise not be founded. Here is a description of the situation by Francis O. Wilcox, an adviser to the US delegation to the 1945 conference:
At San Francisco, the issue was made crystal clear by the leaders of the Big Five: it was either the Charter with the veto or no Charter at all. Senator Connally [from the U.S. delegation] dramatically tore up a copy of the Charter during one of his speeches and reminded the small states that they would be guilty of that same act if they opposed the unanimity principle. "You may, if you wish," he said, "go home from this Conference and say that you have defeated the veto. But what will be your answer when you are asked: 'Where is the Charter?
'
"
As of 2012
[update]
, 269 vetoes had been cast since the Security Council's inception.
[d]
In this period, China used the veto 9 times, France 18, the Soviet Union or Russia 128, the United Kingdom 32, and the United States 89. Roughly two-thirds of Soviet and Russian combined vetoes were in the first ten years of the Security Council's existence. Between 1996 and 2012,
the United States vetoed 13 resolutions, Russia 7, and China 5, while France and the United Kingdom did not use the veto.
[72]
An early veto by Soviet Commissar
Andrei Vishinsky
blocked a resolution on the withdrawal of French forces from Syria and Lebanon which were under
french mandate
in February 1946; this veto established the precedent that permanent members could use the veto on matters outside of immediate concerns of war and peace. The Soviet Union went on to veto matters including the admission of Austria, Cambodia, Ceylon, Finland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Laos, Libya, Nepal,
[74]
Portugal, South Vietnam and Transjordan as UN member states, delaying their joining by several years. The United Kingdom and France used the veto to avoid Security Council condemnation of their actions in the 1956 Suez Crisis. The first veto by the United States came in 1970, blocking General Assembly action in
Southern Rhodesia
. From 1985 to 1990, the US vetoed 27 resolutions, primarily to block resolutions perceived as anti-Israel but also to protect its interests in Panama and Korea. The Soviet Union, the United States and China have all vetoed candidates for Secretary-General, with the US using the veto to block the re-election of
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
in 1996.
Non-permanent members
[
edit
]
Along with the five permanent members, the Security Council of the United Nations has temporary members that hold their seats on a rotating basis by geographic region. Non-permanent members may be involved in global security briefings.
[76]
In its first two decades, the Security Council had six non-permanent members, the first of which were Australia, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, the Netherlands and Poland. In 1965, the number of non-permanent members was expanded to ten.
[77]
These ten non-permanent members are
elected
by the
United Nations General Assembly
for two-year terms starting on 1 January, with five replaced each year.
[78]
To be approved, a candidate must receive at least two-thirds of all votes cast for that seat, which can result in deadlock if there are two roughly evenly matched candidates. In 1979, a standoff between Cuba and Colombia only ended after three months and a record 154 rounds of voting; both eventually withdrew in favour of Mexico as a compromise candidate.
[79]
A retiring member is not eligible for immediate re-election.
[80]
The African Group is represented by three members; the
Latin America and the Caribbean
, Asia-Pacific, and
Western European and Others
groups by two apiece; and the
Eastern European Group
by one. Traditionally, one of the seats assigned to either the Asia-Pacific Group or the African Group is filled by a nation from the
Arab world
, alternating between the groups.
[81]
Currently, elections for terms beginning in even-numbered years select two African members, and one each within Eastern Europe, Asia-Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean; the traditional "Arab seat" is elected for this term. Terms beginning in odd-numbered years consist of two Western European and Other members, and one each from Asia-Pacific, Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean.
[79]
During the
2016 United Nations Security Council election
, neither Italy nor the Netherlands met the required two-thirds majority for election. They subsequently agreed to split the term of the Western European and Others Group. It was the first time in over five decades that two members agreed to do so.
[82]
Usually, intractable deadlocks are resolved by the candidate countries withdrawing in favour of a third member state.
The current elected members, with the regions they were elected to represent, are as follows:
[83]
[84]
[85]
[86]
[87]
President
[
edit
]
The role of
president of the Security Council
involves setting the agenda, presiding at its meetings and overseeing any crisis. The president is authorized to issue both
Presidential Statements
(subject to consensus among Council members) and notes,
[88]
[89]
which are used to make declarations of intent that the full Security Council can then pursue.
[89]
The presidency of the council is held by each of the members in turn for one month, following the English alphabetical order of the member states' names.
[90]
The list of nations that will hold the Presidency in 2024 is as follows:
[91]
Meeting locations
[
edit
]
Unlike the General Assembly, the Security Council is not bound to
sessions
. Each Security Council member must have a representative available at UN Headquarters at all times in case an emergency meeting becomes necessary.
[92]
The Security Council generally meets in a designated chamber in the
United Nations Conference Building
in New York City. The chamber was designed by the Norwegian architect
Arnstein Arneberg
and was a gift from Norway. The
United Nations Security Council mural
by Norwegian artist
Per Krohg
(1952) depicts a
phoenix
rising from its ashes, symbolic of the world's rebirth after World War II.
[93]
The Security Council has also held meetings in cities including
Nairobi
, Kenya;
Addis Ababa
, Ethiopia;
Panama City
, Panama; and
Geneva
, Switzerland.
[92]
In March 2010, the Security Council moved into a temporary facility in the
General Assembly Building
as its chamber underwent renovations as part of the UN Capital Master Plan.
[94]
The renovations were funded by Norway, the chamber's original donor, for a total cost of
US$
5 million.
[95]
The chamber reopened on 16 April 2013.
[96]
The representatives of the member states are seated on a horseshoe-shaped table, with the president in the very middle flanked by the Secretary on the right and the Undersecretary on the left. The other representatives are placed in clockwise order alphabetically from the president leaving two seats at the ends of the table for guest speakers. The seating order of the members is then rotated each month as the presidency changes.
Because of the public nature of meetings in the
Security Council Chamber
, delegations use the chamber to voice their positions in different ways, such as with
walkouts
.
[97]
Consultation room
[
edit
]
Due to the public scrutiny of the Security Council Chamber,
[98]
much of the work of the Security Council is conducted behind closed doors in "informal consultations".
[99]
[100]
In 1978, West Germany funded the construction of a conference room next to the Security Council Chamber. The room was used for "informal consultations", which soon became the primary meeting format for the Security Council. In 1994, the French ambassador complained to the Secretary-General that "informal consultations have become the Council's characteristic working method, while public meetings, originally the norm, are increasingly rare and increasingly devoid of content: everyone knows that when the Council goes into public meeting everything has been decided in advance".
[101]
When Russia funded the renovation of the consultation room in 2013, the Russian ambassador called it "quite simply, the most fascinating place in the entire diplomatic universe".
[102]
Only members of the Security Council are permitted in the conference room for consultations. The press is not admitted, and other members of the United Nations cannot be invited into the consultations.
[103]
No formal record is kept of the informal consultations.
[104]
[105]
As a result, the delegations can negotiate with each other in secret, striking deals and compromises without having their every word transcribed into the permanent record. The privacy of the conference room also makes it possible for the delegates to deal with each other in a friendly manner. In one early consultation, a new delegate from a Communist nation began a propaganda attack on the United States, only to be told by the Soviet delegate, "We don't talk that way in here."
[100]
A permanent member can cast a "pocket veto" during the informal consultation by declaring its opposition to a measure. Since a veto would prevent the resolution from being passed, the sponsor will usually refrain from putting the resolution to a vote. Resolutions are vetoed only if the sponsor feels so strongly about a measure that it wishes to force the permanent member to cast a formal veto.
[99]
[106]
By the time a resolution reaches the Security Council Chamber, it has already been discussed, debated and amended in the consultations. The open meeting of the Security Council is merely a public ratification of a decision that has already been reached in private.
[107]
[99]
For example,
Resolution 1373
was adopted without public debate in a meeting that lasted just five minutes.
[99]
[108]
The Security Council holds far more consultations than public meetings. In 2012, the Security Council held 160 consultations, 16 private meetings and 9 public meetings. In times of crisis, the Security Council still meets primarily in consultations, but it also holds more public meetings. After the outbreak of the
Russo-Ukrainian War
in 2014, the Security Council returned to the patterns of the Cold War, as Russia and the Western countries engaged in verbal duels in front of the television cameras. In 2016, the Security Council held 150 consultations, 19 private meetings and 68 public meetings.
[109]
Subsidiary organs/bodies
[
edit
]
Article 29 of the Charter provides that the Security Council can establish subsidiary bodies in order to perform its functions. This authority is also reflected in Rule 28 of the Provisional Rules of Procedure. The subsidiary bodies established by the Security Council are extremely heterogenous. On the one hand, they include bodies such as the Security Council Committee on Admission of New Members. On the other hand, both the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
and the
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
were also created as subsidiary bodies of the Security Council. The by now numerous Sanctions Committees established in order to oversee implementation of the various sanctions regimes are also subsidiary bodies of the council.
United Nations peacekeepers
[
edit
]
After approval by the Security Council, the UN may send
peacekeepers
to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states. These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed "Blue Helmets" for their distinctive gear.
The peacekeeping force as a whole received the
Nobel Peace Prize
in 1988.
[112]
As of 28 February 2023, the UN had 86,903 uniformed and civilian personnel serving in 12 peacekeeping missions, with 121 countries contributing military personnel.
[113]
The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (
MONUSCO
), which included 20,688 uniformed personnel. The smallest, United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (
UNMOGIP
), included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in
Jammu and Kashmir
. Peacekeepers with the
United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
(UNTSO) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longest-running active peacekeeping mission.
[114]
UN peacekeepers have also drawn criticism in several postings. Peacekeepers have been accused of child rape, soliciting prostitutes, or sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
[115]
Haiti,
[116]
Liberia,
[117]
Sudan and what is now South Sudan,
[118]
Burundi and Ivory Coast.
[119]
Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the
2010?2013 Haiti cholera outbreak
, which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the
2010 Haiti earthquake
.
[120]
The budget for peacekeeping is assessed separately from the main UN organisational budget; in the fiscal year 1 July 2021 - 30 June 2022 peacekeeping expenditures amounts for $6.38 billion.
[121]
UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries.
This amount finances 10 of the 12 ongoing
UN peacekeeping missions
, along the liquidation of the UN African Union Hybrid Operation in Darfur (
UNAMID
) and logistics support for the African Union Mission in Somalia (
AMISOM
), providing the technology, logistics and general support to all peace operations through global service centres in
Brindisi
(
Italy
) and a regional service centre in
Entebbe
(
Uganda
). The UN Truce Supervision Organisation (
UNTSO
) and the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (
UNMOGIP
) are excluded from the Peacekeeping Operations budged and are financed through the regular UN budget.
[121]
For the 2020?2021 budget, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the US (27.89%), China (15.21%), Japan (8.56%), Germany (6.09%), the United Kingdom (5.79%), France (5.61%), Italy (3.30%), Russian Federation (3.04%), Canada (2.73%) and South Korea (2.26%).
[121]
Criticism and evaluations
[
edit
]
In examining the first sixty years of the Security Council's existence, British historian
Paul Kennedy
concludes that "glaring failures had not only accompanied the UN's many achievements, they overshadowed them", identifying as particular failures the lack of will to prevent ethnic massacres in Bosnia and Rwanda.
Kennedy attributes the failures to the UN's lack of reliable military resources, writing that "above all, one can conclude that the practice of announcing (through a Security Council resolution) a new peacekeeping mission without ensuring that sufficient armed forces will be available has usually proven to be a recipe for humiliation and disaster."
Several studies have examined the Security Council's responsiveness to armed conflict. Findings suggests that the Council is more likely to meet and deliberate on conflicts that are more intense and have led to more humanitarian suffering, but that its responsiveness is also shaped by the political interests of member states and in particular of the permanent members.
[125]
A 2005 RAND Corporation study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that 88% of UN cases had led to lasting peace.
[126]
Also in 2005, the
Human Security Report
documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism?mostly spearheaded by the UN?had been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.
[127]
Scholar Sudhir Chella Rajan argued in 2006 that the five permanent members of the Security Council, all of which are nuclear powers, had created an exclusive
nuclear club
that predominantly addresses the strategic interests and political motives of the permanent members?for example, protecting the oil-rich Kuwaitis in 1991 but poorly protecting the resource-poor Rwandans in 1994.
[128]
Since three of the five permanent members are European, and four are predominantly white developed nations, the Security Council has been described as a pillar of
global apartheid
by Titus Alexander, former Chair of the Westminster United Nations Association.
[129]
The Security Council's effectiveness and relevance are questioned by some because, in most high-profile cases, there are essentially no consequences for violating a Security Council resolution. During the
Darfur crisis
,
Janjaweed
militias, allowed by elements of the Sudanese government, committed violence against an indigenous population, killing thousands of civilians. In the
Srebrenica massacre
, Serbian troops committed genocide against
Bosniaks
, although
Srebrenica
had been declared a UN
safe area
, protected by 400 armed Dutch peacekeepers.
In his 2009 speech,
Muammar Gaddafi
criticized the Security Council's veto powers and the wars that permanent members of the Security Council had engaged in.
The
UN Charter
gives all three powers of the
legislative
, executive and
judiciary
branches to the Security Council.
[131]
In his inaugural speech at the
16th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement
in August 2012,
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei
criticized the Security Council as having an "illogical, unjust and completely undemocratic structure and mechanism" and called for a complete reform of the body.
[132]
The Security Council has been criticized for failure in resolving many conflicts?including
Cyprus
,
Sri Lanka
,
Syria
,
Kosovo
, and the
Israeli?Palestinian conflict
?reflecting the wider shortcomings of the UN.
For example; at the 68th Session of the UN General Assembly, New Zealand Prime Minister
John Key
heavily criticized the UN's inaction on
Syria
, more than two years after the Syrian civil war had begun.
[133]
There is evidence of
bribery
in the Security Council. Countries that are elected to the Security Council see a large increase in foreign aid from the US, averaging 59%. They also see an 8% increase in aid from the UN, mainly from
UNICEF
.
[134]
The increase most strongly correlates to years in which the Security Council addresses issues relevant to the US. There is also evidence of increased foreign aid to elected countries from Japan and Germany. One study found membership on the Security Council correlates with reduced economic growth for a given country over the course of its two-year term?3.5% growth during membership compared to 8.7% over four years of non-membership?although the effect is mainly driven by African authoritarian countries. Elected members also experience a reduction in democracy and
freedom of the press
.
[135]
Membership reform
[
edit
]
Proposals to reform the Security Council began with the conference that wrote the UN Charter and have continued to the present day. As British historian Paul Kennedy writes, "Everyone agrees that the present structure is flawed. But consensus on how to fix it remains out of reach."
There has been discussion of increasing the number of permanent members. The countries which have made the strongest demands for permanent seats are Brazil, Germany, India and Japan. Japan and Germany, the main defeated powers in WWII, had been the UN's second- and third-largest funders, respectively, before China took over as the second largest funder in recent years, while Brazil and India are two of the largest contributors of troops to UN-mandated peace-keeping missions.
Italy, another main defeated power in WWII and now the UN's sixth-largest funder, leads a movement known as
Uniting for Consensus
in opposition to the possible expansion of permanent seats. Core members of the group include Canada, South Korea, Spain, Indonesia, Mexico, Pakistan, Turkey, Argentina and Colombia. Their proposal is to create a new category of seats, still non-permanent, but elected for an extended duration (semi-permanent seats). As far as traditional categories of seats are concerned, the UfC proposal does not imply any change, but only the introduction of small and medium size states among groups eligible for regular seats. This proposal includes even the question of veto, giving a range of options that goes from abolition to limitation of the application of the veto only to Chapter VII matters.
Former UN Secretary-General
Kofi Annan
asked a team of advisers to come up with recommendations for reforming the United Nations by the end of 2004. One proposed measure is to increase the number of permanent members by five, which, in most proposals, would include Brazil, Germany, India and Japan (known as the
G4 nations
), one seat from Africa (most likely between Egypt, Nigeria or South Africa), and/or one seat from the
Arab League
.
[137]
On 21 September 2004, the G4 nations issued a joint statement mutually backing each other's claim to permanent status, together with two African countries. Currently the proposal has to be accepted by two-thirds of the General Assembly (128 votes).
The permanent members, each holding the right of veto, announced their positions on Security Council reform reluctantly. The United States has unequivocally supported the permanent membership of Japan and lent its support to India and a small number of additional non-permanent members. The United Kingdom and France have essentially supported the G4 position, with the expansion of permanent and non-permanent members and the accession of Germany, Brazil, India and Japan to permanent member status, as well as an increase in the presence of African countries on the Council. China has supported stronger representation of developing countries and has firmly opposed Japan's membership.
[138]
In 2017, it was reported that the G4 nations were willing temporarily to forgo
veto power
if granted
permanent UNSC seats
.
[139]
In September 2017,
US Representatives
Ami Bera
and
Frank Pallone
introduced a resolution (H.Res.535) in the
US House of Representatives
(
115th United States Congress
), seeking support for the elevation of
India
to permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council.
[140]
While discussions on expanding permanent membership to individual nations such as the G4 continue, alternative proposals have been put forward to reconsider the structure of the Security Council. The Noble World Foundation (NWF) proposes a novel approach, suggesting that UNSC membership and veto power be shifted from individual states to sovereignty-pooling organizations like the European Union (EU). This proposal aligns with the UNSC's practice of regionally-based selection of non-permanent members, aiming to improve the Council's decision-making and effectiveness. The EU serves as a primary example of such pooled sovereignty, especially following the European Court of Justice's 1964 ruling that established the precedence of EU law over national laws of its member states. The NWF advocates that regional entities like the EU could be eligible for UN membership in the Security Council, enabling a significant reform without necessitating an amendment to the UN Charter.
[141]
[142]
See also
[
edit
]
Explanatory notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
"Article 7 (1) of Charter of the United Nations"
.
Archived
from the original on 10 April 2019
. Retrieved
4 September
2017
.
- ^
"Article 24 (1) of Charter of the United Nations"
.
Archived
from the original on 10 April 2019
. Retrieved
4 September
2017
.
- ^
"Article 4 (2) of Charter of the United Nations"
.
Archived
from the original on 10 April 2019
. Retrieved
4 September
2017
.
- ^
"Article 108 of Charter of the United Nations"
.
Archived
from the original on 10 April 2019
. Retrieved
4 September
2017
.
- ^
"Article 23 (1) of the Charter of the United Nations"
.
www.un.org
.
United Nations
. 26 June 1945.
Archived
from the original on 10 April 2019
. Retrieved
10 December
2018
.
- ^
"Data for November 2021"
(PDF)
.
United Nations Peacekeeping
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 11 July 2022
. Retrieved
19 June
2022
.
- ^
United Nations, Dept of Public Information (1986).
Everyone's United Nations
. UN. p. 5.
ISBN
978-92-1-100273-7
.
Archived
from the original on 15 January 2023
. Retrieved
5 December
2020
.
- ^
Tandon, Mahesh Prasad; Tandon, Rajesh (1989).
Public International Law
. Allahabad Law Agency.
- ^
"Declaration by United Nations"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 3 July 2015
. Retrieved
1 July
2015
.
- ^
Urquhart, Brian
(16 July 1998).
"Looking for the Sheriff"
.
The New York Review of Books
.
45
(12). New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998.
Archived
from the original on 9 March 2022
. Retrieved
7 June
2019
.
- ^
Video: Allies Study Post-War Security Etc. (1944)
.
Universal Newsreel
. 1944
. Retrieved
28 November
2014
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
"Milestones in United Nations History"
. Department of Public Information, United Nations. Archived from
the original
on 11 January 2012
. Retrieved
22 November
2013
.
- ^
"What is the Security Council?"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 1 September 2022
. Retrieved
15 January
2021
.
- ^
Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951).
"U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
.
Archived
from the original on 26 July 2022
. Retrieved
26 July
2022
.
- ^
"
"The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success" First Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly in 1947 at Lake Success on untappedcitites.com"
. 19 May 2021.
Archived
from the original on 19 May 2021
. Retrieved
16 January
2023
.
- ^
"
United Nations in Action
: Photograph of Edmund Chester, Larry LaSueur, Lyman Bryson at the interim headquarters of the UN General Assembly Lake Success, NY, March 8,1949 ongettyimages.com"
. 2 March 2017.
Archived
from the original on 13 January 2023
. Retrieved
16 January
2023
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Charter of the United Nations: Chapter VII: Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 5 May 2009
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
Fasulo 2004
, p. 43;
Meisler 1995
, p. 334.
- ^
For quotation "worldwide ridicule", see
Meisler 1995
, p. 293; for description of UN missions in Bosnia, see
Meisler 1995
, pp. 312?329.
- ^
"UN failed during final days of Lankan ethnic war: Ban Ki-moon"
.
FirstPost
. Press Trust of India. 25 September 2013.
Archived
from the original on 30 October 2013
. Retrieved
5 November
2013
.
- ^
"UNODA ? Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 2 May 2016
. Retrieved
29 June
2017
.
- ^
"Charter of the United Nations: Chapter II: Membership"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 8 December 2013
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
"Charter of the United Nations: Chapter V: The Security Council"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 1 October 2013
. Retrieved
9 June
2012
.
- ^
"Charter of the United Nations: Chapter VI: Pacific Settlement of Disputes"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 8 December 2013
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
See
Fomerand 2009
, p. 287;
Hillier 1998
, p. 568;
Kochler 2001
, p. 21;
Matthews 1993
, p. 130;
Neuhold 2001
, p. 66. For lack of enforcement mechanism, see
Magliveras 1999
, p. 113.
- ^
"Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' Over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abasentions"
. United Nations. 17 March 2011.
Archived
from the original on 19 March 2011
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
a
b
Fomerand 2009
, p. 287.
- ^
Article 13
Archived
19 October 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
of the Rome Statute. United Nations. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
- ^
"Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, To Prosecutor of International Criminal Court"
(Press release). United Nations Security Council. 31 March 2006.
Archived
from the original on 11 October 2020
. Retrieved
14 March
2007
.
- ^
Wadhams, Nick (2 April 2005).
"Bush relents to allow UN vote on Sudan war crimes"
.
The Sydney Morning Herald
.
Archived
from the original on 19 January 2014
. Retrieved
27 November
2013
.
- ^
Gray-Block, Aaron and Greg Roumeliotis (27 February 2011).
"Q+A: How will the world's war crimes court act on Libya?"
.
Reuters
.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2016
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
"Resolution 1674 (2006)"
. UN Security Council via Refworld.
Archived
from the original on 2 December 2013
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
a
b
"SIPRI Military Expenditure Database"
. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
Archived
from the original on 24 May 2016
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
Nichols, Michelle (27 July 2012).
"United Nations fails to agree landmark arms-trade treaty"
.
Reuters
.
Archived
from the original on 16 March 2016
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Changing Patterns in the Use of the Veto in The Security Council"
(PDF)
. Global Policy Forum.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 14 January 2016
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
Times, A. M. Rosenthalspecial To the New York (8 September 1949).
"RUSSIA'S 31ST VETO IN U. N. BARS NEPAL; Nine Nations in the Security Council Vote for Admitting Country to Membership"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
.
Archived
from the original on 18 January 2023
. Retrieved
18 January
2023
.
- ^
U.N. Security Council Briefing on the U.S. Air Strike in Syria
on
YouTube
Time
- ^
"The UN Security Council"
. United Nations Foundation. Archived from
the original
on 20 June 2012
. Retrieved
15 May
2012
.
- ^
"Current Members"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 19 December 2018
. Retrieved
4 January
2016
.
- ^
a
b
"Special Research Report No. 4Security Council Elections 201121 September 2011"
. Security Council Report. Archived from
the original
on 8 June 2012
. Retrieved
8 June
2012
.
- ^
"Charter of the United Nations: Chapter V: The Security Council"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 1 October 2013
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
Malone, David (25 October 2003).
"Reforming the Security Council: Where Are the Arabs?"
.
The Daily Star
. Beirut.
Archived
from the original on 11 June 2021
. Retrieved
3 January
2011
.
- ^
"General Assembly Elects 4 New Non-permanent Members to Security Council, as Western and Others Group Fails to Fill Final Vacancy"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 5 August 2016
. Retrieved
9 August
2016
.
- ^
"Current Members"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 22 March 2022
. Retrieved
1 January
2020
.
- ^
"General Assembly Elects Estonia, Niger, Saint Vincent and Grenadines, Tunisia, Viet Nam as Non-Permanent Members of Security Council for 2020?2021"
. United Nations. 7 June 2019.
Archived
from the original on 25 June 2020
. Retrieved
1 January
2020
.
- ^
"Kenya wins final contested seat on Security Council"
.
UN News
. 18 June 2020.
Archived
from the original on 21 June 2020
. Retrieved
19 June
2020
.
- ^
"Kenya defeats Djibouti to win a seat at the UN Security Council"
.
Aljazeera
. 18 June 2020.
Archived
from the original on 18 June 2020
. Retrieved
19 June
2020
.
- ^
Hamill, James (19 February 2019).
"South Africa returns to UN Security Council: here's the role it should play"
.
The Conversation
.
Archived
from the original on 24 October 2020
. Retrieved
25 November
2020
.
- ^
"Notes by the president of the Security Council"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 30 March 2012
. Retrieved
9 June
2012
.
- ^
a
b
"UN Security Council: Presidential Statements 2008"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 11 August 2012
. Retrieved
9 June
2012
.
- ^
"Security Council Presidency in 2011 ? United Nations Security Council"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 3 June 2012
. Retrieved
9 June
2012
.
- ^
"Security Council Presidency"
.
United Nations Security Council
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 22 March 2022
. Retrieved
5 January
2020
.
- ^
a
b
"What is the Security Council?"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 17 November 2018
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
"The Security Council"
Archived
26 September 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
.
United Nations Cyberschoolbus
. United Nations. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
- ^
"UN Capital Master Plan Timeline"
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 4 September 2012
. Retrieved
29 September
2013
.
- ^
"An unrecognizable Security Council Chamber"
. Norway Mission to the UN. 28 August 2012. Archived from
the original
on 26 December 2016
. Retrieved
29 September
2013
.
- ^
"Secretary-General, at inauguration of renovated Security Council Chamber, says room speaks 'language of dignity and seriousness'
"
. United Nations. 16 April 2013. Archived from
the original
on 19 April 2013
. Retrieved
26 November
2013
.
- ^
Haidar, Suhasini (1 September 2015).
"India's walkout from UNSC was a turning point: Natwar"
.
The Hindu
.
Archived
from the original on 29 September 2017
. Retrieved
13 April
2016
.
According to Mr. Singh, posted at India's permanent mission at the U.N. then, 1965 was a "turning point" for the U.N. on Kashmir, and a well-planned "walkout" from the U.N. Security Council by the Indian delegation as a protest against Pakistani Foreign Minister (and later PM) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's speech ensured Kashmir was dropped from the UNSC agenda for all practical purposes.
- ^
Hovell, Devika (2016).
The Power of Process: The Value of Due Process in Security Council Sanctions Decision-making
. Oxford University Press. p. 145.
ISBN
978-0-19-871767-6
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
De Wet, Erika; Nollkaemper, Andre; Dijkstra, Petra, eds. (2003).
Review of the Security Council by member states
. Antwerp: Intersentia. pp. 31?32.
ISBN
978-90-5095-307-8
.
- ^
a
b
Bosco, David L. (2009).
Five to Rule Them All: the UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World
. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.
138?139
.
ISBN
978-0-19-532876-9
.
- ^
Elgebeily, Sherif (2017).
The Rule of Law in the United Nations Security Council Decision-Making Process: Turning the Focus Inwards
. Taylor & Francis. pp. 54?55.
ISBN
978-1-315-41344-0
.
- ^
Sievers, Loraine; Daws, Sam (2014).
The Procedure of the UN Security Council
(4 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-150843-1
.
- ^
"Security Council Handbook Glossary"
.
United Nations Security Council
.
Archived
from the original on 12 June 2017
. Retrieved
29 June
2017
.
"Consultations of the whole" are consultations held in private with all 15 Council members present. Such consultations are held in the Consultations Room, are announced in the UN Journal, have an agreed agenda and interpretation, and may involve one or more briefers. The consultations are closed to non-Council Member States. "Informal consultations" mostly refer to "consultations of the whole", but in different contexts may also refer to consultations among the 15 Council members or only some of them held without a Journal announcement and interpretation.
- ^
"United Nations Security Council Meeting records"
.
Archived
from the original on 31 January 2017
. Retrieved
10 February
2017
.
The preparatory work for formal meetings is conducted in informal consultations for which no public record exists.
- ^
"Frequently Asked Questions"
.
United Nations Security Council
.
Archived
from the original on 5 September 2018
. Retrieved
29 June
2017
.
Both open and closed meetings are formal meetings of the Security Council. Closed meetings are not open to the public and no verbatim record of statements is kept, instead the Security Council issues a Communique in line with Rule 55 of its Provisional Rules of Procedure. Consultations are informal meetings of the Security Council members and are not covered in the Repertoire.
- ^
"The Veto"
(PDF)
.
Security Council Report
.
2015
(3). 19 October 2015.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 5 March 2016.
- ^
Reid, Natalie (January 1999).
"Informal Consultations"
.
Global Policy Forum
.
Archived
from the original on 28 April 2016
. Retrieved
13 April
2016
.
- ^
"Meeting record, Security Council, 4385th meeting"
.
United Nations Repository
. United Nations. 28 September 2001. S/PV.4385.
Archived
from the original on 10 October 2017
. Retrieved
9 October
2017
.
- ^
"Highlights of Security Council Practice 2016"
.
Unite
. United Nations.
Archived
from the original on 11 February 2017
. Retrieved
10 February
2017
.
- ^
Nobel Prize.
"The Nobel Peace Prize 1988"
.
Archived
from the original on 2 April 2011
. Retrieved
3 April
2011
.
- ^
"DATA"
.
United Nations Peacekeeping
.
Archived
from the original on 22 September 2022
. Retrieved
31 May
2023
.
- ^
"United Nations Peacekeeping Operations"
. United Nations. 30 September 2013.
Archived
from the original on 23 March 2016
. Retrieved
9 November
2013
.
- ^
Lynch, Colum (16 December 2004).
"U.N. Sexual Abuse Alleged in Congo"
.
The Washington Post
.
Archived
from the original on 11 November 2013
. Retrieved
21 November
2013
.
- ^
"UN troops face child abuse claims"
.
BBC News
. 30 November 2006.
Archived
from the original on 9 December 2013
. Retrieved
21 November
2013
.
- ^
"Aid workers in Liberia accused of sex abuse"
.
The New York Times
. 8 May 2006.
Archived
from the original on 3 October 2014
. Retrieved
22 November
2013
.
- ^
Holt, Kate (4 January 2007).
"UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan"
.
The Telegraph
.
Archived
from the original on 11 January 2022
. Retrieved
21 November
2013
.
- ^
"Peacekeepers 'abusing children'
"
. BBC. 28 May 2007.
Archived
from the original on 9 December 2013
. Retrieved
21 November
2013
.
- ^
Watson, Ivan and Joe Vaccarello (10 October 2013).
"U.N. sued for 'bringing cholera to Haiti', causing outbreak that killed thousands"
. CNN.
Archived
from the original on 3 December 2013
. Retrieved
18 November
2013
.
- ^
a
b
c
"How we are funded"
.
United Nations Peacekeeping
.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2021
. Retrieved
31 May
2023
.
- ^
Lundgren, Magnus; Klamberg, Mark (2022).
"Selective Attention: The United Security Council and Armed Conflict"
.
British Journal of Political Science
.
doi
:
10.1017/S0007123422000461
.
- ^
RAND Corporation.
"The UN's Role in Nation Building: From the Congo to Iraq"
(PDF)
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 20 February 2005
. Retrieved
30 December
2008
.
- ^
Human Security Centre.
"The Human Security Report 2005"
. Archived from
the original
on 28 July 2009
. Retrieved
8 February
2007
.
- ^
Rajan, Sudhir Chella (2006).
"Global Politics and Institutions"
(PDF)
.
GTI Paper Series: Frontiers of a Great Transition
.
3
. Tellus Institute.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 28 October 2006
. Retrieved
11 December
2011
.
- ^
Alexander 1996
, pp. 158?160.
- ^
Creery, Janet (2004).
"Read the fine print first"
.
Peace Magazine
(Jan?Feb 1994): 20.
Archived
from the original on 7 December 2011
. Retrieved
11 December
2011
.
- ^
"Supreme Leader's Inaugural Speech at 16th NAM Summit"
. Non-Aligned Movement News Agency. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
- ^
Key compromises on UN Syria deal
Archived
30 September 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
.
3 News NZ
. 28 September 2013.
- ^
Kuziemko, Ilyana (1 August 2006).
"How Much Is a Seat on the Security Council Worth? Foreign Aid and Bribery at the United Nations"
.
Journal of Political Economy
.
114
(5): 905?930.
doi
:
10.1086/507155
.
ISSN
0022-3808
.
- ^
Vreeland, James Raymond (11 May 2019).
"Corrupting International Organizations"
.
Annual Review of Political Science
.
22
(1): 205?222.
doi
:
10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-071031
.
ISSN
1094-2939
.
- ^
"UN Security Council Reform May Shadow Annan's Legacy"
.
Voice of America
. 1 November 2006.
Archived
from the original on 3 February 2012
. Retrieved
11 December
2011
.
- ^
"US embassy cables: China reiterates 'red lines'
"
.
The Guardian
. 29 November 2010.
Archived
from the original on 4 December 2013
. Retrieved
11 December
2011
.
[I]t would be difficult for the Chinese public to accept Japan as a permanent member of the UNSC.
- ^
"India Offers To Temporarily Forgo Veto Power If Granted Permanent UNSC Seat"
.
HuffPost
.
Archived
from the original on 8 March 2017
. Retrieved
9 March
2017
.
- ^
"US congressmen move resolution in support of India's UN security council claim"
.
Hindustan Times
. 27 September 2017.
Archived
from the original on 1 October 2017
. Retrieved
30 September
2017
.
- ^
"The urgent need for UNSC reform: A path to global peace". India Post"
.
India Post
. 15 December 2023.
Archived
from the original on 21 December 2023
. Retrieved
15 December
2023
.
- ^
Union, The European (14 February 2023).
"The European Union: The World's Biggest Sovereignty Experiment", CFR World 101"
. The European Union.
Archived
from the original on 21 December 2023
. Retrieved
21 December
2023
.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Alexander, Titus (1996).
Unravelling Global Apartheid: An Overview of World Politics
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Polity Press.
ISBN
978-0-7456-1353-6
.
- Blum, Yehuda Z.
(1992).
"Russia Takes Over the Soviet Union's Seat at the United Nations"
(PDF)
.
European Journal of International Law
.
3
(2): 354?362.
doi
:
10.1093/ejil/3.2.354
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 24 March 2012
. Retrieved
8 February
2016
.
- Coulon, Jocelyn
(1998).
Soldiers of Diplomacy: The United Nations, Peacekeeping, and the New World Order
. University of Toronto Press.
ISBN
978-0-8020-0899-2
.
- Deni, John R. (2007).
Alliance Management and Maintenance: Restructuring NATO for the 21st Century
. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-7546-7039-1
.
- Fasulo, Linda (2004).
An Insider's Guide to the UN
. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
ISBN
978-0-300-10155-3
.
- Fomerand, Jacques (2009).
The A to Z of the United Nations
. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.
ISBN
978-0-8108-5547-2
.
- Gaddis, John Lewis
(2000) [1972].
The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941?1947
. New York: Columbia University Press.
ISBN
978-0-231-12239-9
.
- Hillier, Timothy (1998).
Sourcebook on Public International Law
. Sourcebook Series. London: Cavendish Publishing.
ISBN
978-1-85941-050-9
.
- Hoopes, Townsend
;
Brinkley, Douglas
(2000) [1997].
FDR and the Creation of the U.N
. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
ISBN
978-0-300-08553-2
.
- Kennedy, Paul
(2006).
The Parliament of Man
: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations
. New York: Random House.
ISBN
978-0-375-50165-4
.
- Kochler, Hans
(2001).
The Concept of Humanitarian Intervention in the Context of Modern Power: Is the Revival of the Doctrine of "Just War" Compatible with the International Rule of Law?
. Studies in International Relations 26. Vienna: International Progress Organization.
ISBN
978-3-900704-20-9
.
- Magliveras, Konstantinos D. (1999).
Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations: The Law and Practice behind Member States' Expulsion and Suspension of Membership
. Studies and Materials on the Settlement of International Disputes. Vol. 5. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
ISBN
978-90-411-1239-2
.
- Manchester, William
;
Reid, Paul
(2012).
The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill
. Vol. 3:
Defender of the Realm
. New York: Little Brown and Company.
ISBN
978-0-316-54770-3
.
- Matthews, Ken (1993).
The Gulf Conflict and International Relations
. London: Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-07519-0
.
- Meisler, Stanley (1995).
United Nations: The First Fifty Years
. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
- Mikulaschek, Christoph (2010). "Report from the 39th International Peace Institute Vienna Seminar on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping". In Winkler, Hans;
Rød-Larsen, Terje
; Mikulaschek, Christoph (eds.).
The UN Security Council and the Responsibility to Protect: Policy, Process, and Practice
(PDF)
. Favorita Papers. Diplomatic Academy of Vienna. pp. 20?49.
ISBN
978-3-902021-67-0
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 13 February 2016
. Retrieved
8 February
2016
.
- Mires, Charlene (2013).
Capital of the World: The Race to Host the United Nations
. New York University Press.
ISBN
978-0-8147-0794-4
.
- Neuhold, Hanspeter (2001). "The United Nations System for the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes". In Cede, Frank; Sucharipa-Behrmann, Lilly (eds.).
The United Nations: Law and Practice
. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
ISBN
978-90-411-1563-8
.
- Osma?czyk, Edmund Jan
(2004). Mango, Anthony (ed.).
Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements
. Vol. 4. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN
978-0-415-93924-9
.
- Schlesinger, Stephen C.
(2003).
Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations: A Story of Super Powers, Secret Agents, Wartime Allies and Enemies, and Their Quest for a Peaceful World
. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
ISBN
978-0-8133-3324-3
.
- Wilcox, Francis O.
(1945). "The Yalta Voting Formula".
American Political Science Review
.
39
(5): 943?956.
doi
:
10.2307/1950035
.
ISSN
0003-0554
.
JSTOR
1950035
.
S2CID
143510142
.
- Zunes, Stephen
(2004). "International Law, the UN and Middle Eastern Conflicts".
Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice
.
16
(3): 285?292.
doi
:
10.1080/1040265042000278513
.
ISSN
1040-2659
.
S2CID
143010895
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bailey, Sydney D.; Daws, Sam (1998).
The Procedure of the UN Security Council
(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-828073-6
.
- Bosco, David L.
(2009).
Five to Rule Them All: The UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World
. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-532876-9
.
- Cockayne, James; Mikulaschek, Christoph; Perry, Chris (2010).
The United Nations Security Council and Civil War: First Insights from a New Dataset
. New York: International Peace Institute.
Archived
from the original on 18 April 2014
. Retrieved
8 February
2016
.
- Grieger, Gisela (2013).
Reform of the UN Security Council
(PDF)
. Library of the European Parliament.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 15 June 2016
. Retrieved
8 February
2016
.
- Hannay, David
(2008).
New World Disorder: The UN after the Cold War ? An Insider's View
. London: I.B. Tauris.
ISBN
978-1-84511-719-1
.
- Hurd, Ian (2007).
After Anarchy: Legitimacy and Power in the United Nations Security Council
. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
ISBN
978-0-691-12866-5
.
- Kochler, Hans
(1991).
The Voting Procedure in the United Nations Security Council: Examining a Normative Contradiction in the UN Charter and its Consequences on International Relations
(PDF)
. Studies in International Relations. Vol. 17. Vienna: International Progress Organization.
ISBN
978-3-900704-10-0
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 September 2006.
- Lowe, Vaughan
;
Roberts, Adam
;
Welsh, Jennifer
; Zaum, Dominik, eds. (2008).
The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-953343-5
.
- Malone, David
(1998).
Decision-Making in the UN Security Council: The Case of Haiti, 1990?1997
. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-829483-2
.
- Matheson, Michael J. (2006).
Council Unbound: The Growth of UN Decision Making on Conflict and Postconflict Issues after the Cold War
. Washington: US Institute of Peace Press.
ISBN
978-1-929223-78-7
.
- Roberts, Adam
; Zaum, Dominik (2008). "Selective Security: War and the United Nations Security Council since 1945".
Strategic Survey: The Annual Review of World Affairs
. Adelphi Paper.
395
. Abingdon, England: Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-47472-6
.
ISSN
0567-932X
.
- Vreeland, James
;
Dreher, Axel
(2014).
The Political Economy of the United Nations Security Council: Money and Influence
. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-51841-3
.
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
1940s
| |
---|
1950s
| |
---|
1960s
| |
---|
1970s
| |
---|
1980s
| |
---|
1990s
| |
---|
2000s
| |
---|
2010s
| |
---|
2020s
| |
---|
|
|
---|
International
| |
---|
National
| |
---|
Academics
| |
---|
Other
| |
---|