???????????

???????? : 41°00′44″N 28°58′34″E  /  41.01224°N 28.976018°E  / 41.01224; 28.976018
?? ?????????? ???????? ?????
???????????
???????? 41°00′45″N 28°58′48″E  /  41.0125°N 28.98°E  / 41.0125; 28.98   تعديل قيمة خاصية (P625) في ويكي بيانات
خريطة
????? ????? - ?????   طالع توثيق القالب
  ?????? ????? ???? ??????????? (?????) .

41°00′44″N 28°58′34″E  /  41.01224°N 28.976018°E  / 41.01224; 28.976018

???? ?????? ???????????.
????? ??????????? .
??? ????? .
???? ??????? .
???? ????? ?????? .

?????????????????????? (( ?????????? : Κωνσταντινο?πολι? )?? ( ?????????? : Constantinopolis)? ( ???????? ????????? : ????????? )?? ( ?????????? : Цариград )?? ( ???????? : Цариград)) ?? ????? ???????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?? 335 ??? 395 ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? 395 ??? 1453 ??? ????? ??? ?? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? 1410 ?1422 ???? ???? ?????? ???????????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? . ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? . ????? ????? ?? ??? 1930 ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????. ????? ??????? ??? 658 ?.? . ????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? . ??? ??? 335 ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ( ???????????? ????????? ) ????? ???? ????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? ????????????. [1] ????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?????. [2]

??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ? ???? ??????????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ? [3] ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????????? ? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????????? ???????? . ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? .

???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ????????????. ??? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????????. [4] ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ? ????? ????????? ??????? (?????????) ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? 1453 .

??? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ????????. ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? 1204 ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ????? ????? ???????????? ????????? . ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? 1261 ?? ??? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? 1453 ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? .

?????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ??? ????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ? ??? ???? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ? ?????? ???? ????? ? ???????? ???????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? . [5] ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? 1204 ???? 1453 . [6] ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? . ????? ????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? 100,000 ??. [7] ?????? ????? ??????????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? . [8] ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ? ??????? ? ??????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????.

?? ?????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ? ???? ???? ?????????? ??? ????? ???????????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ?????????? ? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????????????? ???????? ≪????????≫ ?? ≪??? ???????≫? [9] ??? ???? ??????????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????????? . [10]

??????? [ ??? ]

??? ??? ????? ? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ???????.

????? ?????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ??????

????? ??? 658 ?.? . ????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ??????. ??? ??? 335 ? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ( ???????????? ????????? ) ????? ???? ????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ????????? ??? ????? . ???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???????????? . ??? ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????????. [4] ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????. ??? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????. ??? ??? ??????????? ???? ???????? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????. [11] ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????. [12]

?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ??? 1054 ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? 1204 ? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???????.

??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ( 1451 - 1481 ) ??? ?????????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????.

???? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? : ≪???? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ??????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????≫. [13]

????? ????? ??????????? (324?337) [ ??? ]

???? ????: ???? ??? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???????
???? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???????. ??? ????? ? ?. ?1000 .
Commemorative Ancient Coin of Constantinople
??? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ?? 330-333 ?????? ???? ????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????.
??? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???????????.

??? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????. ??? ??????? ???? ????????????? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????. ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ????????? ????????. ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????: ???? ???? ?????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????????.

?? ???? ??????????? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? 11 ???? 330. [14] [15] ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ??? 14 ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????????. [16] ??? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???????. ??? ????? ?????? ? ????? ?? ????? ???? . ?? ??? ??? ?????? ? ?????? ? ?? ??????? . ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ≪??????≫? ???? ≪ ?????????? ≫? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ????. ??? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????. ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????: ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????. ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????. ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? 18 ???? 332 ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????.?? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? 80 ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? 117 ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????. [17]

??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ????

??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ????????? . ??? ???? ?????? ?????? (?? ?????) ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????. ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? [??????????] . ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?? 80.000 ????? ??????? ???????? ???????. ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ?????????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ???????????? ????????? ??????? .

?? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ? ???? ?? ????? ???????. ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???????. ?? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????.?? ????? ??? Mese ???? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? (?? Xerolophus) ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????????? . ??? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???????. [18] ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ????? 1400 ?????. [19]

??????????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? (337-529) [ ??? ]

????????? ????? ??? ??? ?????????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????????? ??? ????? (?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????????? ).

?????? ????? ???????????? ????? ???? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ??? 337 ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? 337-338? 347-351? 358-361? 368-369. ?? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??? ????? ?? 11 ?????? 359 ??? 361. ??? ????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ????????? ???????? ??????? (??? ???? ??????? ???)? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ???? ???? ????? 100 ??? ????? ????. ?????????? ????? ? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ???? Propontis ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????. ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ???????????? ??? ??????? ?? Hebdomon. ????????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? (???????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? )? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??? Mese? ?????? ?? ????? ???????.

??? ???? ????? ????????? ??? 378? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ??? 413-414 ????????? ?????? ??? 18 ????? (60 ?????) - ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ???????.??? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 27 ?????? 425.

??? ?????? ? ???? ????? ? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????.

??????? ?? ??? ??????????? ?????? ? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????

??? ?? ????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????????? ?????????. ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????. ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????. ????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???????????.

??????????? ?? ??? ??????? (527-565) [ ??? ]

????? ??????????? (1422) ????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ??????????? [20] ?? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? 1453.
?? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? [21] ?? 532. ?? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??? 1453 ????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ??? 1935 ??? ??? 2020.

????? ?????????? ???????? ????? (527-565) ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????. ?? ??????????? ????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? 21 ????? 533. ??? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???????. ??? ????????? ?? ??? 534? ???. ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? 70 ? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ??? 455? ?? ??????? ??? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????. [22]

??? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????. ?? ???????????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??????. ??? ?????? (??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???????) ??? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????????. ?? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????????? ???? ?????? ????.

???? Valens ????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????????.

???? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? - ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ????? ?????? ?????? [23] ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????. ?????? ????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???? ???? ??? 532? ????? ???? ????? ??? "????" (?? ???? ????? ≪???!≫ ?? ?????????). [24]

?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? (?????? ???????)? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ??? ????? (?????? ??????). ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????. ?? ??????? ?? 26 ?????? 537 ????? ??????????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ≪?? ?????? ? ??? ????? ????!≫ [25] ??? ??? ????? 600 ??? ?? ????? 80 ??????? ????? ?????? 20 ??? ???? ?? ?????. [26]

??? ??????? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???????. ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????.???? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???. ????? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ??????? ??? 1453? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? 100 ??? (30 ?) ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????. [27]

???? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ????? 500000 ????. [28] ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? 541-542 ?. ??? ???? 40? ?? ???? ???????. [29]

??? ???? ?? ????????? ( ????? ????????? ) ???? ???? ???? ??????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? .

??????????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????? (565-717) [ ??? ]

?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?? ?????. ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? . ???? ? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?????. ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ???????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??????????? ???????. ??? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? 618 ????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????????: ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ????. [30]

????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?????????? ??????? .

?? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ??????? ?? 626? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ≪????? ??????≫ ?? ??? 628? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ????????. ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ????? ?? 674 ??? 678 ?? ?? 717 ??? 718 . ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????. ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ?????. ???? ???? ??? ≪???? ??????≫. [31]

??????????? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? (717-1025) [ ??? ]

?????????? ??? ?????? (886-912) ????? ???? ?????? . ??????? ??? ??????? ???????????? ?? ??? ????? .

?? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????. ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ????????????.

???????? ????? ?????????? ???????? (???? 842)? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????. ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??? 856? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????. ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????????? ??? ????? ????? ?? 867. [32]

?? ??? 860? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???? [33] ? ???? ?????? ????????? : ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? . ??????? ? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ??????. ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????????. [34]

?? ??? 980? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ????: 6000 ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? . ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????. ???? ??? ?? ??? 1038? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????. [35] ??? ???? ??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????????. [36] ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? . [37]

????? ?? ???? ????????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??????????? - ???? ?????? ??????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ? ????? 1261

???? ≪ ???? ?????? ≫? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????. ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??????????? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????????. ??? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????. ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? 330 ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????. [38]

?? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ??? 500000 ? 800000 ????. [39]

??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ? ???????..

??? ????? ????????? ?? ??????????? [ ??? ]

?? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????????????. ???? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? 726 ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????????? ????. [40] ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? 754 ? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????????: ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? [41] ?? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ≪???? ????? ?????≫. [42] ??? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? 780? ????? ??????????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? 787.

??? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? 843 ???? ???? ??? ??????????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ????? ?????????. ????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? .

??????????? ??? ????? ?????? (1025-1081) [ ??? ]

??? ?? ?????? (??????????: Μ?λ (λιον)? ??? ????? ???

?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? 1071. ?? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????????. ???? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? 1073. ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ???????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???????. ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????. ????? ??? 1080? ???? ????? ???? ???? ????????????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???????????.

??????????? ??? ??? ????????? (1081-1185) [ ??? ]

???????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ? ?. ?1180 .
????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ? ???????????. ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? (1118-1143) ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????.

?? ??? ??????? ???????? (1081-1185)? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????. ?? 1090-1091? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ???????????? ??? ??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????. [43] ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ??? 1096? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????. [44] ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????????????? (?????? ??????) ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? 50 ?????. [45]

?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????????? ???? ???? ????. ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? (????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? 100000 ??? 500000)? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????. ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ????. ????? ??? ?? ??????????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????: ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????????. ?? ?????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? . ??? ??? ?????????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???. ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? 60.000-80.000 ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? 400.000 ????. [46] ?? ??? 1171? ????? ??????????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? 2500 ?????. [47] ?? ??? 1182? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????????? ?????????? (?????? ???????) ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? . [48]

?? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ????????? ? ??? ???? ??????: ????? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????. ????? ?? NH Baynes (`` ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ):

≪ ????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????. ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????????? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??????? - ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????? - ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????.

?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????. ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????????. ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?? Monreale? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???. ???? ???????? - ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?????????. ???? ????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?????. ????? ???? ? ?????? ????????? ? ????? ??? ??????????? ? ???? ?????? ? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??.??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ".

≫

??????????? ????? ????? ??????????? (1185-1261) [ ??? ]

????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????
???? ????????? ??? ??????????? ? ??? ????? ???????? ? 1840.
???????????? ????????? ? ?????????? ????? ? ?????????? ??????? ? ?????? ?????? . ?????? ??? ????? ??????.

?? 25 ????? 1197? ???? ??????????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? Droungarios (( ???????? : Odun Kapısı )?) ??? ????? ???. [49] [50] ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? 1197 ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????. ?? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? 1203 ?? ???????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ?????. ?? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????.???? ????????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ???????? [51] ???? ???? ????? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? 27 ?????: ?? ??????? ??????. ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????????. ????? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ??????????. ?? ????? 1204? ???? ≪ protovestiarius ≫ ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????. ?? ?????? 1204? ??? ????? ??? ????: ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? . ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????. ??? ???? ??? ????????? ?? 6 ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 12 ?????? ????? ??????. ?? ??????? ??????. ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???. ??? ?? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????????. ?? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ????. ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ????.

??? ????? ????? ???????? ? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ??????????? ≪?? ???? ?? ?? ???????≫.

≪???? ???? ????? [...] ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????. ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????. ?????? ?????????? [...] ??? ?????? ??????? ????? [...] ??????. ??? ????????? ??????????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????. ??????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? [...]. ?? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ????????. ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??? ???????. ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????. ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ???????. ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ????. ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????. ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? [...]? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????. [...] ????? [...] ??? ??????? ??????? [...] ???? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????. [52] ≫

???? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ??? ???????????? ????????? . ?? ?? ??? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???????. ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??????????? ???? ?? 400.000 ???? ? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????. ????? ?????? ??? ??? ≪????? ???? ????? ??????????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????≫. [53]

??? ????? ???????????? ? ???????

?????? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? 20 ????? ? 13 ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ????????. ?????? ?? E.H. ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ???????. [54] ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????: ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ??? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????. ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ? ??? ???? ??? ?????????? ??? "?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???: ??? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ". [55] ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ???????: ??? ?? ??? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????. ??? ??????: "?? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ????????" ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???????. ?????? ??????? ? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ". [56]

???? ?? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???. ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ≪???????≫ ("exonesamenos")? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???????. [57] ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ????? Blachernae ? Rouphinianai ??????? ??????? ?? ???????. ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????. [56]

??? ???? ??????????? ? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ???.

???? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????? ? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???????????? ????????. [58] ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ???????????. ?? ??? 1261? ???? ??????????? ?? ?? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? .

????? ??????????? ????? ??????????? (1261?1453) [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ???? ???????????? ??? ?????? ?????? .

??? ????? ?? ??????? ??????????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ???????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????. ???? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ????????.????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? 35000 ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? 70.000 ????. [59] ??? ?????????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????. [60] ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ?? ??? 1347 ??? ??????????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????. [61] [62] ?? ??? 1453? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? 50000 ???. [63]

?? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ???????????? ????????? ?? 29 ???? 1453. [64] ??? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? 21 ?????. ??? ??? ??????????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? 6 ????? 1453.

??????????? ????????? (1453-1922) [ ??? ]

??? ???? ? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ????? (??? ??????) ?? ??? 1348 ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???????????

???? ????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????. ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? (???????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? Adrianople)? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???. [65] ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ???????. [66] ??? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ? "???????? ???????? ??????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ??. [67] ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??????????? ??? ???? ????? [67] [68] ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???????????

??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????. ??? ???? 45000 ???? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ????. [69] ???? ???? ????? ??? ??????????? ??? ??? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????????? ????? ??????. [69] ?? ???? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ???????: ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ≪??????≫ ?????? ???????. [70] ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?????????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ????. ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ??? ?? ???? ? ???????? ? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????. [70] ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? 1459 ?????????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???????. [70]

????? [ ??? ]

"????? ???????"? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ??? ??????????? ??????
????? ???? ?? ???????????

???? ??????????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??????. ????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?? ??? ???. ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????. ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ? ?? ????? ?????? ???????. ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????????: ≪??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????≫.

??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ?? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????: ?? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????. ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????. ?? ??? ??????????? ????? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???.

?????? ?? ????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? (Elpis Kesaratsian). ???? ?????? "Kit'arr" ?? "Guitar" ???????? ??? 1862? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???. ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ≪??????? ????????≫. ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? "Arevelian Mamal". ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ???. ????? ??? 1900? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ??? ?? ??? ???? Tsaghik ?? ???????????. [71]

??????? [ ??? ]

??? ??? ????? ???????????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ?????????? ≪????? ????? ?? ????? ????????≫. ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ≪???≫ ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??????. ????????? ??? ?? ≪???? ?? 500 ????? ???≫ ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?????. ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? 1325 ??? ?? ????????? ≪???????≫ ??? ≪?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ??????≫. [72]

????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ????? ???????
????? ??? ????? ? ????? ????

??????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????. ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????. ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????????? [73] ????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???????. ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ? ?????? ???????????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????. ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????????. ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????.

?? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????????? ???????? . [74]

??? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????. ??? ???? ??? ?? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ?? 1054 ???????. ????? ??????????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ? ??? ?? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? .

????? [ ??? ]

?? ??? 1909 ??? ?? ??????????? 626 ??????? ?????????? ?12 ??????? ????????. ?? ??? ??????? ??????????? ???? 561 ????? ???? ?????? ? 65 ????? ???? ?????? ? ?? ??? ?????? ??? 34 ????? ? 31 ?????. ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????. [75]

??????? [ ??? ]

  1. ^ "Constantinople" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , ????? ????? ??????? , Oxford, 1991, p. 508. ISBN 0-19-504652-8
  2. ^ ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? 20 ?????? 2016 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  3. ^ Pounds, Norman John Greville. An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500?1840 , p. 124. CUP Archive, 1979. ISBN 0-521-22379-2 .
  4. ^ ? ? Cameron 2009 ? ????? 47.
  5. ^ Rautman, M.L. p. 77
  6. ^ Janin (1964), passim
  7. ^ "Preserving The Intellectual Heritage--Preface" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2017-10-20.
  8. ^ Marina Loukaki: "Universite. Domaine byzantin", in: Dictionnaire encyclopedique du Moyen Age , Vol. 2, Editions du Cerf, Paris, 1997, ISBN 2-204-05866-1 , p. 1553:
    ≪Le nom "universite" designe au Moyen Age occidental une organisation corporative des eleves et des maitres, avec ses fonctions et privileges, qui cultive un ensemble d'etudes superieures. L'existence d'une telle institution est fort contestee pour Byzance. Seule l'ecole de Constantinople sous Theodose Il peut etre prise pour une institution universitaire. Par la loi de 425, l'empereur a etabli l'"universite de Constantinople", avec 31 professeurs remuneres par l'Etat qui jouissaient du monopole des cours publics.≫
  9. ^ ???? ??? ??????? ( 1427?? - 2006? ). ????? ???? (??????). ????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? (?. ???????). ????? - ????? : ??? ???????. ?. 164. ISBN : 9953-18-084-9 . {{ ??????? ????? }} : ???? ?? ??????? ??: |?????= ( ?????? )
  10. ^ ????????? ???? ? ???? ????? ??????? ???? (?????? 1992?). ???????? ?? ??????? . ????? - ????? : ??? ????? ???????? . ?. ????? ??????. ?. 124. {{ ??????? ????? }} : ???? ?? ??????? ??: |?????= ( ?????? )
  11. ^ Browning 1992 ? ????? 198?208.
  12. ^ Browning 1992 ? ???? 218.
  13. ^ ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? 2010? ? 142
  14. ^ Mango? Cyril (1991). "Constantinople". ?? ???????? ?????? (??????). ????? ??????? ???????? . ??????? ? ???????: ??? ??? ????? ???????. ?. 508?512. ISBN : 0-19-504652-8 .
  15. ^ Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (see, e.g., Michael Grant, The climax of Rome (London 1968), p. 133), or "Constantine's City". According to the Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum , vol. 164 (Stuttgart 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" ( Nova Roma ). It is possible that the Emperor called the city "Second Rome" (( ?????????? : Δευτ?ρα ??μη )?  Deutera Rh?m? ) by official decree, as reported by the 5th-century church historian ????? ?????????? : See ????? ??????? .
  16. ^ A description can be found in the Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae .
  17. ^ Socrates II.13, cited by J B Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 74.
  18. ^ J B Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, p. 75. et seqq .
  19. ^ Bogdanovi? 2016 ? ????? 100.
  20. ^ Liber insularum Archipelagi , ??????? ??????? ???????? , Paris.
  21. ^ ????? ???? (1 ????? 2023). ????? ????? ?????? . Dar Dawen. ISBN : 978-977-806-357-8 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2023-04-08.
  22. ^ Margaret Barker, Times Literary Supplement 4 May 2007, p. 26.
  23. ^ Procopius' Secret History : see P Neville-Ure, Justinian and his Age, 1951.
  24. ^ James Grout: "The Nika Riot" , part of the Encyclopædia Romana ???? ?????? 2023-04-08 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  25. ^ Source for quote: Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum , ed T Preger I 105 (see ????????? ??????? , History of the Byzantine Empire , 1952, vol I, p. 188).
  26. ^ Madden? Thomas F. (2004). Crusades: The Illustrated History . University of Michigan Press. ?.  114 . ISBN : 9780472114634 .
  27. ^ Justinian, Novellae 63 and 165.
  28. ^ Early Medieval and Byzantine Civilization: Constantine to Crusades ???? ?????? August 26, 2015, ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ., Dr. Kenneth W. Harl.
  29. ^ Past pandemics that ravaged Europe , ?? ?? ?? ???? , November 7, 2005. ???? ?????? 10 ?????? 2021 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  30. ^ Possibly from the largest city in the world with 500,000 inhabitants to just 40,000?70,000: The Inheritance of Rome, Chris Wickham, Penguin Books Ltd. 2009, ( ???? 978-0-670-02098-0 ) (p. 260)
  31. ^ "Exposition, Dedicated to Khan Tervel" . Programata . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-05-07 . ???? ???? ?????? 2014-08-28 .
  32. ^ George Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, Dent, London, 1906, pp. 156?161.
  33. ^ T?r?kh R?siy? . 1900. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2023-04-08.
  34. ^ Finlay, 1906, pp. 174?175.
  35. ^ Finlay, 1906, p. 379.
  36. ^ Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia, tydning, tolkning . Historiska Media, Falun. ( ???? 91-88930-32-7 ) p. 135.
  37. ^ J M Hussey, The Byzantine World, Hutchinson, London, 1967, p. 92.
  38. ^ Vasiliev 1952, pp. 343?344.
  39. ^ Silk Road Seattle ? Constantinople , Daniel C. Waugh. ???? ?????? 2 ?????? 2021 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  40. ^ The officer given the task was killed by the crowd, and in the end the image was removed rather than destroyed: It was to be restored by ????? ????? and removed again by ???? ?????? ??????? : Finlay 1906, p. 111.
  41. ^ Runciman? Sir Steven (1993). ??????? ????????? . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2023-04-08.
  42. ^ Vasiliev 1952, p. 261.
  43. ^ "The Pechenegs" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2005-08-29 . ???? ???? ?????? 2009-10-27 . , Steven Lowe and Dmitriy V. Ryaboy.
  44. ^ There is an excellent source for these events: the writer and historian ??? ??????? in her work ???????? .
  45. ^ Vasiliev 1952, p. 472.
  46. ^ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople , 144.
  47. ^ J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople , 155.
  48. ^ The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 950?1250 . Cambridge University Press. 1986. ?.  506 ?508. ISBN : 978-0-521-26645-1 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-08-01 . ???? ???? ?????? 2016-02-19 .
  49. ^ Stilbes? Constantine? Johannes M. Diethart? Wolfram Horandner (2005). Constantinus Stilbes Poemata . Walter de Gruyter. ?.  16 line 184. ISBN : 978-3-598-71235-7 .
  50. ^ Diethart and Horandner (2005). p. 24, line 387
  51. ^ "????? ?????? ?? ???????.. ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???????" . DailySabah Arabic . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2023-04-08 . ???? ???? ?????? 2023-04-08 .
  52. ^ Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades , Cambridge 1966 [1954], vol 3, p. 123.
  53. ^ Talbot, "The Restoration of Constantinople under Michael VIII" , Dumbarton Oaks Papers , 47 (1993), p. 246 ???? ?????? 2020-11-27 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  54. ^ Talbot, "Restoration of Constantinople", p. 247
  55. ^ Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West (Harvard University Press, 1959), p. 124 n. 26
  56. ^ ? ? Talbot, "Restoration of Constantinople", p. 248
  57. ^ Geanakoplos, Emperor Michael , p. 124
  58. ^ Hussey 1967, p. 70.
  59. ^ T. Madden, Crusades: The Illustrated History , 113.
  60. ^ Norwich? John Julius (1996). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall . Penguin Books. ?. 217. ISBN : 9780140114492 .
  61. ^ https://www.infezmed.it/media/journal/Vol_19_3_2011_10.pdf ???? ?????? 2020-10-19 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
  62. ^ "The Black Death" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2008-06-25 . ???? ???? ?????? 2008-11-03 . {{ ??????? ??? }} : ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown ( link ) , Channel 4 ? History.
  63. ^ Nicolle? David (2005). Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium . Praeger. ?. 32. ISBN : 9780275988562 .
  64. ^ "fall of Constantinople | Facts, Summary, & Significance" . Encyclopedia Britannica . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-07-16.
  65. ^ Ibrahim, Raymond. Sword and Scimitar . Da Capo Press, New York, ( ???? 978-0-306-82555-2 ). p. 244.
  66. ^ Ibrahim, Raymond. Sword and Scimitar . Da Capo Press, New York, ( ???? 978-0-306-82555-2 ). p. 245.
  67. ^ ? ? Mansel, Philip. Constantinople: City of the World's Desire . Penguin History Travel, ( ???? 0-14-026246-6 ). p. 1.
  68. ^ Lewis, Bernard. Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire. 1, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963. p. 6
  69. ^ ? ? Inalcik, Halil. "The Policy of Mehmed II toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23, (1969): 229?249. p. 236
  70. ^ ? ? ? Muller-Wiener (1977), p. 28
  71. ^ Rowe? Victoria (2003). A History of Armenian Women's Writing, 1880?1922 . Cambridge Scholars Press. ISBN : 978-1-904303-23-7 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-10-28.
  72. ^ Dalby? Andrew (2010). Tastes of Byzantium: The Cuisine of a Legendary Empire . I.B. Tauris. ?.  61 ?63.
  73. ^ "San Marco Basilica | cathedral, Venice, Italy" . Encyclopedia Britannica . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2021-02-06.
  74. ^ Kazhdan? Alexander ? ?????? (1991)? Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium ? Oxford University Press? ISBN : 978-0-19-504652-6
  75. ^ "Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year Ended June 30, 1912." Whole Number 525. Volume 1. Washington Government Printing Office, 1913. In: Congressional Edition , Volume 6410. ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? , 1913. p. 570 . ???? ?????? 2020-03-26 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

???? ????? [ ??? ]

?????? ?? ≪ https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=???????????&oldid=66630316 ≫