Nirvana

De la Wikipedia, enciclopedia liber?
Pentru alte sensuri, vede?i Nirvana (dezambiguizare) .
Rishabhanatha, despre care se credea c? a tr?it acum un milion de ani, a fost primul Tirthankara care a ob?inut nirvana .

Nirv??a ( / n ??r ? v ?ː n ? / neer- VAH -n? , / - ? v æ n ? / -VAN -? ; [1] sanscrit? ??????? nirv??a [n???aː??]  ; Pali nibb?na ; Prakrit ivivv??a , literalmente "suflat?", ca intr-o lamp? de petrol [2] ) este asociat? de obicei cu jainismul ?i budismul ?i reprezint? starea suprem? de eliberare soteriologic? , eliberarea de rena?terea repetat? in sa?s?ra . [3] [4]

In religiile indiene , nirvana este sinonim cu moksha ?i mukti [7] , o stare de lini?te perfect?, libertate, fericirea cea mai inalt?, precum ?i eliberarea sau sfar?itul samsarei (acel ciclu repetat de na?tere, via?? ?i moarte). [8] [9]

Cu toate acestea, ins?, tradi?iile budiste ?i non-budiste descriu ace?ti termeni ai eliber?rii in mod diferit [10]  :

  • In contextul budist, nirvana se refer? la realizarea anattei (non-eu) ?i a sunyatei (goliciune), marcand sfar?itul rena?terii prin potolirea focurilor care determin? ca procesul de rena?tere s? se perpetueze. [10] [11] [12]
  • In jainism , apare ?i obiectivul soteriologic ?i nirvana reprezint? eliberarea unui suflet de robia karmic? ?i de samsara. [16]

Etimologie [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Cuvantul Nirvana cuvant, afirm? Steven Collins, este din r?d?cina verbal? vA ?suflu“ sub forma de participiu trecut Vana ?suflate“, prefixat cu preverbul nis insemnand ?afar?“. Prin urmare, sensul original al cuvantului este "suflat afar?, stins". Sandhi schimba sunetele: v din v?na face ca nis s? devin? nir , iar apoi r din nir provoac? retroflexiunea urm?torului n  : nis + v?na > nirv??a . [17]

Termenul nirvana in sensul soteriologic al st?rii de eliberare "suflat afar?, stins" nu apare nici in Vede, nici in Upani?ade . Potrivit lui Collins, "budi?tii par s? fi fost primii care l-au numit nirvana ". [18] Cu toate acestea, ideile eliber?rii spirituale folosind terminologie diferit?, cu conceptul de suflet ?i Brahman, apar in textele vedice ?i in Upani?ade, cum ar fi in versul 4.4.6 al Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. [19] Aceasta poate a fost folosirea deliberat? a cuvintelor in budismul timpuriu, sugereaz? Collins, deoarece Atman ?i Brahman au fost descri?i in textele vedice ?i Upani?ade cu imaginea focului ca fiind ceva bun, de dorit ?i eliberator. [20]

Origini [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Nirvana este un termen g?sit in textele tuturor religiilor indiene majore: budism , [21] hinduism , [22] jainism [23] ?i sikhism . [24] [25] Se refer? la pacea profund? a min?ii dobandit? cu moksha , eliberarea din samsara sau eliberarea dintr-o stare de suferin?? , dup? practicarea spiritual? respectiv? sau s?dhan?. [29]

Ideea de moksha este conectat? la cultura vedic?, in care se transmite no?iunea de amrtam, ?nemurire“, [30] [31] ?i, de asemenea, no?iunea de atemporal ?nen?scut“, sau ?punctul in care se trece la lumea temporal?". Era, de asemenea, structura sa atemporal?, intregul care st? la baza "spi?elor ro?ii invariabile, dar neincetate a timpului". [32] Speran?a vie?ii dup? moarte a inceput cu no?iuni despre c?l?torii in lumea P?rin?ilor sau a str?mo?ilor sau in lumea zeilor sau a cerului. [30] [33]

Cele mai vechi texte vedice incorporeaz? conceptul de via??, urmat de o via?? de apoi in rai ?i iad, pe baza virtu?ilor cumulate (merit) sau a viciilor (nemerit). [34] Cu toate acestea, vechiul Rishis Vedic a provocat aceast? idee de via?? dup? moarte ca fiind simplist?, pentru c? oamenii nu tr?iesc o via?? la fel de moral? sau imoral?. Intre vie?ile virtuoase, in general, unele sunt mai virtuoase; in timp ce ?i r?ul are grade, iar orizontul permanent sau iadul permanent este dispropor?ionat.

Ganditorii vedici au introdus ideea unei vie?i de dup? moarte in rai sau iad propor?ional cu meritul cuiva, iar cand aceast? via?? dup? moarte se termin?, se revine ?i se rena?te. [35] [36] [37]

Ideea de rena?tere dup? "consumarea meritului" apare ?i in textele budiste. [38] Aceast? idee apare in multe texte vechi ?i medievale, cum este Sa?s?ra sau ciclul f?r? sfar?it al vie?ii, mor?ii, rena?terii ?i mantuirii, cum ar fi sec?iunea 6:31 a lui Mahabharata [39] ?i versetul 9.21 al Bhagavad Gita . [40] [41] [44] Sa?s?ra , via?a dup? moarte ?i impactul rena?terii au fost v?zute ca fiind dependente de karma . [45]

Eliberarea din sa?s?ra se desf??ura ca un scop final ?i ca o valoarea soteriologic? in cultura indian?, ?i erau numite cu diferi?i termeni precum nirvana, mok?a, mukti ?i kaivalya. Aceast? schem? de baz? st? la temelia hinduismului, jainismului ?i budismului, unde "scopul final este starea atemporal? a mok?ei sau, a?a cum se pare c? budi?tii l-au numit, nirvana". [46]

De?i termenul apare in literaturile unui num?r de vechi tradi?ii indiene, conceptul este cel mai frecvent asociat cu budismul. A fost adoptat mai tarziu de alte religii indiene, dar cu semnifica?ii ?i descrieri diferite ( Mok?a ), cum ar fi in textul hindus Bhagavad Gita din Mahabharata . [22]

Budism [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Pictur? mural? tradi?ional? khmer? descriindu-l pe Gautama Buddha intrand in nirvana, pavilion de reunire Dharma, Wat Botum Wattey Reacheveraram, Phnom Penh , Cambodgia .

Nirvana ( nibbana ) inseamn? literalmente "suflare" sau "stingere". [47] Este cel mai folosit ?i cel mai scurt termen pentru a descrie obiectivul soteriologic in budism: eliberarea din ciclul rena?terii ( sa?s?ra ). [48] Nirvana face parte din Al Treilea Adev?r despre "incetarea dukkha" in doctrina celor patru adev?ruri nobile despre budism. [48] Este scopul Noii C?i Optuple, adic? avand opt aspecte: vederi juste, inten?ie, vorbire, fapt?, mod de via??, str?duin??, con?tiin?? ?i concentrare. [49]

Se crede, in tradi?ia scolastic? budist?, c? Buddha a realizat dou? tipuri de nirvane, unul la iluminare ?i altul la moartea sa. [50] Prima este numit? sopadhishesa-nirvana (nirvana cu un rest), a doua parinirvana sau anupadhisha-nirvana (nirvana f?r? rest sau nirvana final?). [50]

Nirvana este descris? in tradi?ia budist? ca stingerea arderilor care provoac? rena?teri ?i suferin?ele asociate. [51] Textele budiste identific? aceste ?trei focuri“ sau ?trei otr?vuri“ ca raga (l?comie, senzualitate), dvesha (aversiune, ur?) ?i avidya sau moha (ignoran??, delir).

Starea nirvanei este, de asemenea, descris? in budism ca o incetare a tuturor necazurilor, incetarea tuturor ac?iunilor, incetarea rena?terilor ?i a suferin?elor care sunt o consecin?? a necazurilor ?i a ac?iunilor. Eliberarea este descris? ca fiind identic? cu anatatea ( anatom , non-sine, lips? de sine). [52] [53]

In budism, eliberarea se realizeaz? atunci cand toate lucrurile ?i fiin?ele sunt in?elese a fi f?r? Sine. [53] [54] Nirvana este, de asemenea, descris? ca fiind identic? cu realizarea sunyata (goliciune), in care nu exist? esen?? sau natur? fundamental? in nimic ?i totul este gol. [55] [56]

In timp, odat? cu dezvoltarea doctrinei budiste, s-au dat alte interpret?ri, cum ar fi starea necondi?ionat?, [57] un foc care ce se stinge din cauza lipsei de combustibil, abandonand agita?ia ( vana ) impreun? a vie?ii dup? via?? [17] ?i eliminand dorin?ei. [58] Cu toate acestea, textele budiste au afirmat inc? din cele mai vechi timpuri, c? nirvana este mai mult decat ?distrugerea dorin?ei“, este ?obiectul cunoa?terii“ c?ii budiste. [59]

Hinduism [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Cele mai vechi texte ale hinduismului, cum ar fi Vedele ?i Upani?adele timpurii, nu men?ioneaz? termenul soteriologic Nirvana . [22] Acest termen se g?se?te in texte precum Bhagavad Gita [22] ?i Nirvana Upani?ad, probabil compuse in epoca post-Buda. [60]

Conceptul de Nirvana este descris diferit in literaturile budist? ?i hindus?. [61] Hinduismul are conceptul de Atman - sufletul, sinele [62] [63] [64] - afirmat s? existe in fiecare fiin?? vie, in timp ce budismul afirm? prin doctrina anatman?, c? nu exist? Atman in nici o fiin??. [65] [66] Nirvana in budism este ?minte potolit?, incetarea dorin?elor, ?i ac?iune“ in de?ert?ciune, afirm? Jeaneane Fowler, in timp ce nirvana in textele hinduse post-budiste este, de asemenea, ?minte potolit?, dar nu ac?iune“ ?i ?nu de?ert?ciune“, mai degrab? este cunoa?terea adev?ratului Sine (Atman) ?i acceptarea universalit??ii ?i unit??ii sale cu Brahmanul metafizic. [61]

Jainism [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Folio Kalpasutra pe Mahavira Nirvana . Observa?i Siddhashila in form? de semilun?, un loc in care rezid? toate siddhas-urile dup? nirvana.

Termenii mok?a ?i nirvana sunt adesea folosi?i interschimbabil in textele lui Jain. [67] [68]

Uttaradhyana Sutra ofer? o relatare despre Sudharman - numit ?i Gautama, unul dintre ucenicii lui Mahavira - care explic? sensul nirvanei lui Kesi, discipol al lui Parshva. [70]

Maniheism [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Termenul Nirvana (men?ionat ?i sub forma parinirvana ) in lucrarea Maniheism din secolul XIII sau XIV, in "M?re?ul Cantec pentru Mani" ?i in "Povestea mor?ii lui Mani", referindu-se la "mwaym" (t?ramul luminii). [71]

Sikhism [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Conceptul de eliberare ca "dispari?ie a suferin?ei", impreun? cu ideea de sa?s?ra ca "ciclu de rena?tere", face parte, de asemenea, din sikhism . [72] Nirvana apare in textele Sikh sub forma Nirban . [73] [74] Cu toate acestea, termenul mai frecvent este Mukti sau Mok? , [75] un concept de mantuire in care se insist? pe devotamentul iubirii fa?? de Dumnezeu pentru eliberarea din ciclul f?r? sfar?it al rena?terilor. [74]

Vezi ?i [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

Referin?e [ modificare | modificare surs? ]

  1. ^ "nirvana" . Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary .
  2. ^ Richard Gombrich , Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Ben?res to Modern Colombo. Routledge
  3. ^ Chad Meister ( ). Introducing Philosophy of Religion . Routledge. p. 25. ISBN   978-1-134-14179-1 . Buddhism: the soteriological goal is nirvana, liberation from the wheel of samsara and extinction of all desires, cravings and suffering.  
  4. ^ Kristin Johnston Largen. What Christians Can Learn from Buddhism: Rethinking Salvation . Fortress Press. pp. 107?108. ISBN   978-1-4514-1267-3 . One important caveat must be noted: for many lay Buddhists all over the world, rebirth in a higher realm - rather than realizing nirvana - has been the primary religious goal. [...] while many Buddhists strongly emphasize the soteriological value of the Buddha's teaching on nirvana [escape from samsara], many other Buddhists focus their practice on more tangible goals, in particular on the propitious rebirth in one's next life.  
  5. ^ October 2014 [ nefunc?ional? ]
  6. ^ |title=The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism, vimoksha |access-date=17 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222011614/http://www.sgilibrary.org/search_dict.php?id=2602 |archive-date=22 February 2014
  7. ^ Also called vimoksha, vimukti. The Soka Gakkai Dictionary of Buddhism: "Vimoksha [解?] (Skt; Jpn gedatsu). Emancipation, release, or liberation. The Sanskrit words vimukti, mukti, and moksha also have the same meaning. Vimoksha means release from the bonds of earthly desires, delusion, suffering and transmigration. While Buddhism sets forth various kinds and stages of emancipation, or enlightenment, the supreme emancipation is nirvana, [5] [6]
  8. ^ Gavin Flood, Nirvana . In: John Bowker (ed.), Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
  9. ^ Anindita N. Balslev ( ). On World Religions: Diversity, Not Dissension . SAGE Publications. pp. 28?29. ISBN   978-93-5150-405-4 .  
  10. ^ a b Loy, David ( ). ?Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta”. International Philosophical Quarterly . Philosophy Documentation Center. 22 (1): 65?74. doi : 10.5840/ipq19822217 . What most distinguishes Indian from Western philosophy is that all the important Indian systems point to the same phenomenon: Enlightenment or Liberation. Enlightenment has different names in the various systems ? kaivalya, nirvana, moksha, etc. ? and is described in different ways...  
  11. ^ Steven Collins ( ). Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism . Cambridge University Press. pp. 81?84. ISBN   978-0-521-39726-1 .  
  12. ^ Peter Harvey ( ). Buddhism . Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 98?99. ISBN   978-1-4411-4726-4 . [Nirvana is] beyond the processes involved in dying and reborn. [...] Nirvana is emptiness in being void of any grounds for the delusion of a permanent, substantial Self, and because it cannot be conceptualized in any view which links it to 'I' or 'mine' or 'Self'. It is known in this respect by one with deep insight into everything as not-Self (anatta), empty of Self.  
  13. ^ Brian Morris ( ). Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction . Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN   978-0-521-85241-8 . There has been some dispute as to the exact meaning of nirvana, but clearly the Buddhist theory of no soul seems to imply quite a different perspective from that of Vedantist philosophy, in which the individual soul or self [atman] is seen as identical with the world soul or Brahman [god] (on the doctrine of anatta[no soul] ...  
  14. ^ Gwinyai H. Muzorewa ( ). The Great Being . Wipf. pp. 52?54. ISBN   978-1-57910-453-5 . Even the Atman depends on the Brahman. In fact, the two are essentially the same. [...] Hindu theology believes that the Atman ultimately becomes one with the Brahman. One's true identity lies in realizing that the Atman in me and the Brahman - the groud of all existence - are similar. [...] The closest kin of Atman is the Atman of all living things, which is grounded in the Brahman. When the Atman strives to be like Brahman it is only because it realizes that that is its origin - God. [...] Separation between the Atman and the Brahman is proved to be impermanent. What is ultimately permanent is the union between the Atman and the Brahman. [...] Thus, life's struggle is for the Atman to be released from the body, which is impermanent, to unite with Brahman, which is permanent - this doctrine is known as Moksha.  
  15. ^ Fowler 2012 , p. 46.
  16. ^ John E. Cort (1990), MODELS OF AND FOR THE STUDY OF THE JAINS, Method & Theory in the Study of Religion, Vol. 2, No. 1, Brill Academic, pages 42-71
  17. ^ a b Collins 2010 , pp. 63-64.
  18. ^ Steven Collins ( ). Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities . Cambridge University Press. pp. 137?138. ISBN   978-0-521-57054-1 .  
  19. ^ Max Muller ( ). Theosophy Or Psychological Religion . Cambridge University Press. pp. 307?310. ISBN   978-1-108-07326-4 .  
  20. ^ Steven Collins ( ). Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities . Cambridge University Press. pp. 216?217. ISBN   978-0-521-57054-1 .  
  21. ^ Trainor 2004 , p. 68.
  22. ^ a b c d Fowler 2012 , p. 48.
  23. ^ Helmuth von Glasenapp ( ). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation . Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 234, 492. ISBN   978-81-208-1376-2 .  
  24. ^ Sikhism And Indian Civilization By R.K. Pruthi . . p. 200.  
  25. ^ World History: To 1800 By William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel . . pp. 52, 53.  
  26. ^ Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 503, entry for "Bh?van?," retrieved 9 Dec 2008 from "U. Chicago" at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:3558.pali [ nefunc?ional? ] .
  27. ^ Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see "Bh?vana" and "Bh?van?," retrieved 9 Dec 2008 from "U. Cologne" at http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/MWScanpdf/mw0755-bhAvodaya.pdf .
  28. ^ Nyanatiloka 1980 , p. 67.
  29. ^ It is sometimes referred to as bhavana , which refers to spiritual "development" or "cultivating" or "producing" [26] [27] in the sense of "calling into existence", [28]
  30. ^ a b Collins 2010 , p. 29.
  31. ^ Collins 1998 , p. 136.
  32. ^ The wheel is a typical Vedic, or Indo-European, symbol, which is manifested in various symbols of the Vedic religion and of Buddhism and Hinduism. See, for examples, Dharmacakra , Chakra , Chakravartin , Kalachakra , Dukkha and Mandala .
  33. ^ See also Heaven (Christianity) and Walhalla
  34. ^ James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray ( ). Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics . T. & T. Clark. pp. 616?618.  
  35. ^ Frazier 2011 , pp. 84-86.
  36. ^ Atsushi Hayakawa ( ). Circulation of Fire in the Veda . LIT Verlag Munster. pp. 101?103 with footnote 262. ISBN   978-3-643-90472-0 . The concept of punarmrtyu appeared, which conveys that even those who participated in rituals die again in the life after death when the merit of the ritual runs out.  
  37. ^ Krishan, Yuvraj ( ). The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in Br?hma?ical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions . Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 17?27. ISBN   9788120812338 .   ;

    The New Encyclopædia Britannica . Volume 8. Encyclopædia Britannica. . p. 533. ISBN   978-0-85229-633-2 . [These Upanishadic texts] record the traditions of sages (Rishis) of the period, notably Yajnavalkya, who was a pioneer of new religious ideas. [...] Throughout the Vedic period, the idea that the world of heaven was not the end ? and that even in heaven death was inevitable ? had been growing. [...] This doctrine of samsara (reincarnation) is attributed to sage Uddalaka Aruni, [...] In the same text, the doctrine of karma (actions) is attributed to Yajnavalkya...  
  38. ^ Patrul Rinpoche ( ). The Words of My Perfect Teacher . Boston: Shambhala. pp. 95?96. ISBN   978-0-7619-9027-7 . Sumar pentru neini?ia?i (PDF) . After enjoying the happiness of a celestial realm, when his merit runs out he will be reborn here.  
  39. ^ Frazier 2011 , pp. 84-86, Quote: "They reach the holy world of Indra and enjoy the celestial pleasures of the gods in heaven; but having enjoyed the vast world of heaven, they come back to the world of mortals when their merit runs out. So, by following the injunctions of the three Vedas with a desire for pleasures, they get to travel to and fro. (Mah?bh?rata 6.31:20?1)".
  40. ^ Winthrop Sargeant (Translator) ( ). Christopher Key Chapple, ed. The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth?Anniversary Edition . State University of New York Press. p. 397. ISBN   978-1-4384-2840-6 . Having enjoyed the vast world of heaven, they enter the world of mortals when their merit is exhausted. Thus conforming to the law of the three Vedas, Desiring enjoyments, they obtain the state of going and returning.  
  41. ^ Yuvraj Krishan (1988), Is Karma Evolutionary?, Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research, Volume 6, pages 24-26
  42. ^ Surendranath Dasgupta ( ). A history of indian philosophy . Cambridge University Press. pp. 520?522.  
  43. ^ Paul Deussen ( ). The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma-Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon . KB Classics. pp. 357?359. ISBN   978-1-5191-1778-6 .  
  44. ^ Many texts discuss this theory of rebirth with the concepts of Devayana (path of gods) and Pitryana (path of fathers). [42] [43]
  45. ^ Collins 2010 , p. 30.
  46. ^ Collins 2010 , p. 31.
  47. ^ Steven Collins ( ). Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities . Cambridge University Press. p. 191. ISBN   978-0-521-57054-1 .  
  48. ^ a b Buswell & Lopez 2014 , pp. 589-590.
  49. ^ Keown 2004 , pp. 194-195.
  50. ^ a b Buswell & Lopez 2014 , p. 590.
  51. ^ ?nirvana” . Encyclopædia Britannica . Accesat in .  
  52. ^ Steven Collins ( ). Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism . Cambridge University Press. pp. 82, 84. ISBN   978-0-521-39726-1 . Like all other things or concepts (dhamm?) it is anatt?, 'not-self. Whereas all 'conditioned things' (samkh?ra - that is, all things produced by karma) are 'unsatisfactory and impermanent' (sabbe samkh?ra dukkh? . . . anicc?) all dhamm? whatsoever, whether conditioned things or the unconditioned nibb?na, are 'not-self (sabbe dhamm? anatt?). [...] The absolute indescribability of nirvana, along with its classification as anatt?, 'not-self, has helped to keep the separation intact, precisely because of the impossibility of mutual discourse.  
  53. ^ a b Sue Hamilton ( ). Early Buddhism: A New Approach : the I of the Beholder . Routledge. pp. 18?21. ISBN   978-0-7007-1280-9 .   Quote: "The corrected interpretation they offered, widely accepted to his day, still associated anatta with nirvana. What it means, it was now states, is that in order to achieve liberation you need to understand that you are not, and nor do you have, and nor have you ever been or had, an abiding self."
  54. ^ Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe ( ). Buddhist Thought . Routledge. p. 61. ISBN   978-0-415-20701-0 . He makes no mention of discovering the True Self in the Anattalakkhana Sutta. As we have seen, the Buddha explains how liberation comes from letting-go of all craving and attachment simply through seeing that things are not Self anatta. That is all there is to it. One cuts the force that leads to rebirth and suffering. There is no need to postulate a Self beyond all this. Indeed any postulated Self would lead to attachment, for it seems that for the Buddha a Self fitting the description could legitimately be a suitable subject of attachment. There is absolutely no suggestion that the Buddha thought there is some additional factor called the Self (or with any other name, but fitting the Self-description) beyond the five aggregates.  
  55. ^ Mun-Keat Choong ( ). The Notion of Emptiness in Early Buddhism . Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1?4, 85?88. ISBN   978-81-208-1649-7 . Emptiness is a characteristically Buddhist teaching. The present study is concerned with this teaching of emptiness (P. sunnata, Skt. sunyata) as presented in the texts of early Buddhism. [...] The teaching of emptiness is recognized as the central philosophy of early Mahayana. However, this teaching exists in both early Buddhism and early Mahayana Buddhism, where it is connected with the meaning of conditioned genesis, the middle way, nirvana and not-self (P. anatta, Skt. anatman).   ,
  56. ^ Ray Billington ( ). Understanding Eastern Philosophy . Routledge. pp. 58?60, 136. ISBN   978-1-134-79348-8 .   , Quote (p 59-60): "We may better understand what anatman implies if we examine Nagarjuna's concept of the void: shunyata or emptiness. Nagarjuna argued that there is no such thing as the fundamental nature, or essence, of anything. (...) In a word, all is emptiness, shunyata; instead of essence, there is a void. (...) everything is empty."; Quote (p 136): "What we can say, whichever branch of Buddhism we may have in mind, is that the state of nirvana, to which all Buddhists aspire, is like samadhi, a non-dual state. (...) the Buddhist concept of enlightened mind - bodhichitta - refers to a state beyond desire (dukkha) whereby the one who seeks nirvana has achieved shunyata, the emptiness or void described on pages 58-9."
  57. ^ John J. Makransky ( ). Buddhahood Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet . State University of New York Press. p. 85. ISBN   978-0-7914-3431-4 .  
  58. ^ Charles S. Prebish ( ). Buddhism: A Modern Perspective . Penn State Press. pp. 134?135. ISBN   0-271-03803-9 .  
  59. ^ Collins 2010 , p. 54.
  60. ^ Olivelle 1992 , pp. 5?9, 227-235, Quote: "Nirvana Upanishad...".
  61. ^ a b Fowler 2012 , pp. 48-49.
  62. ^ ?Atman (in Oxford Dictionaries)” . Oxford University Press. . Arhivat din original la . Accesat in . Quote: 1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul  
  63. ^ Constance Jones; James D. Ryan ( ). Encyclopedia of Hinduism . Infobase. p. 51. ISBN   978-0-8160-7564-5 .   ; Quote: The atman is the self or soul.
  64. ^ David Lorenzen ( ). Mittal, Sushil; Thursby, Gene, ed. The Hindu World . Routledge. pp. 208?209. ISBN   9781134608751 . Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself.  
  65. ^ [a] Anatta , Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self").";

    [b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN: 978-0791422175 , page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anatt?, Sanskrit: an?tman, the opposed doctrine of ?tman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";

    [c] John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN: 978-8120801585 , page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any ?tman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism";

    [d] Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana? , Philosophy Now;

    [e] David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pages 65-74
  66. ^ [a] Christmas Humphreys ( ). Exploring Buddhism . Routledge. pp. 42?43. ISBN   978-1-136-22877-3 .  

    [b] Richard Gombrich ( ). Theravada Buddhism . Routledge. p. 47. ISBN   978-1-134-90352-8 . Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no-soul doctrine' (anatta-vada) he expounded in his second sermon.   ,
  67. ^ Jaini, Padmanabh ( ). Collected Papers on Jaina Studies . Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN   81-208-1691-9 .   : "Moksa and Nirvana are synonymous in Jainism". p. 168
  68. ^ Michael Carrithers, Caroline Humphrey (1991) The Assembly of listeners: Jains in society Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521365058 : "Nirvana: A synonym for liberation, release, moksa." p. 297
  69. ^ Jacobi, Hermann; Ed. F. Max Muller ( ). Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Jain Sutras Part II, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 45 . Oxford: The Clarendon Press.  
  70. ^ The authenticity of this text is in doubt because Parshva, in Jain tradition, lived about 250 years before Mahavira, and his disciple Kesi would have been a few hundred years old when he met the disciple of Mahavira. See Jacobi (1895), footnotes. [69]
  71. ^ Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009 ISBN: 978-0-834-82414-0 page 669
  72. ^ William Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi ( ). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices . Sussex Academic Press. p. 68. ISBN   978-1-898723-13-4 .  
  73. ^ Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair ( ). Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed . Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 219?220. ISBN   978-1-4411-5366-1 .  
  74. ^ a b H. S. Singha ( ). The Encyclopedia of Sikhism . Hemkunt Press. p. 148. ISBN   978-81-7010-301-1 .  
  75. ^ W. H. McLeod ( ). The A to Z of Sikhism . Scarecrow. pp. 134?. ISBN   978-0-8108-6344-6 .  

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