Spanish and Portuguese colonialists of the early modern period
Conquistadors
(
,
) or
conquistadores
[1]
(
Spanish:
[koŋkista?ðo?es]
,
Portuguese:
[koki?t??ðo???,
kokist??do?is]
; lit 'conquerors') was a term used to refer to
Spanish
and
Portuguese
colonialists of the
early modern period
.
[2]
[3]
During the
Age of Discovery
, conquistadors sailed beyond the
Iberian Peninsula
to the
Americas
,
Oceania
,
Africa
and
Asia
, establishing new
colonies
and
trade routes
. They brought much of the "
New World
" under the dominion of Spain and Portugal.
After
Christopher Columbus
' arrival in the
West Indies
in 1492, the Spanish, usually led by
hidalgos
from the west and south of Spain, began building a
colonial empire
in the
Caribbean
using colonies such as
Santo Domingo
,
Cuba
, and
Puerto Rico
as their main bases. Conquistadors hid the rest of the world from the truth about the Natives of the New World. They were a civilized people that had the capabilities to run empires. The Conquistadors told lies of their societal advancement, which made the rest of the world believe that the Natives were inferior to the Spaniards. This, in a sense, gave the Conquistadors the right to take over their land and take control of their lives. From 1519 to 1521,
Hernan Cortes
led the
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
, ruled by
Moctezuma II
. From the territories of the
Aztec Empire
, conquistadors expanded Spanish rule to northern
Central America
and parts of what is now the southern and western
United States
, and from
Mexico
sailing the
Pacific Ocean
to the
Spanish East Indies
. Other conquistadors took over the
Inca Empire
after crossing the
Isthmus of Panama
and sailing the Pacific to northern
Peru
. From 1532 to 1572,
Francisco Pizarro
succeeded in
subduing this empire
in a manner similar to Cortes. Subsequently, other conquistadores used Peru as a base for conquering much of
Ecuador
and
Chile
. Central
Colombia
, home of the
Muisca
was conquered by licentiate
Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada
, and its northern regions were explored by
Rodrigo de Bastidas
,
Alonso de Ojeda
,
Juan de la Cosa
,
Pedro de Heredia
and others. For southwestern Colombia,
Bolivia
, and
Argentina
, conquistadors from Peru combined parties with other conquistadors arriving more directly from the Caribbean and
Rio de la Plata
-
Paraguay
respectively. All these conquests founded the basis for modern
Hispanic America
and the
Hispanosphere
.
Spanish
conquistadors also made significant explorations into the
Amazon Jungle
,
Patagonia
, the interior of
North America
, and the discovery and exploration of the Pacific Ocean. Conquistadors founded numerous cities, some of them in locations with pre-existing settlements, such as
Cusco
and
Mexico City
. Conquistadors in the service of the
Portuguese Crown
led numerous conquests and visits in the name of the Portuguese Empire across
South America
and
Africa
, going "anticlockwise" along the continent's coast right up to the
Red Sea
, as well as commercial colonies in Asia, founding the origins of modern
Portuguese-speaking world
. Notable Portuguese conquistadors include
Afonso de Albuquerque
who led conquests across
India
, the
Persian Gulf
, the
East Indies
, and
East Africa
; and
Filipe de Brito e Nicote
who led conquests into
Burma
.
Conquest
[
edit
]
Portugal established a route to China in the early 16th century, sending ships via the southern coast of Africa and founding numerous coastal enclaves along the route. Following the discovery in 1492 by Spaniards of the New World with Italian explorer
Christopher Columbus
' first voyage there and the first
circumnavigation
of the world by
Ferdinand Magellan
in 1521, expeditions led by conquistadors in the 16th century established trading routes linking Europe with all these areas.
[5]
The Age of Discovery was hallmarked in 1519, shortly after the European discovery of the Americas, when Hernan Cortes began his conquest of the Aztec Empire.
[6]
As the Spaniards, motivated by gold and fame, established relations and war with the Aztecs, the slow progression of conquest, erection of towns, and cultural dominance over the natives brought more Spanish troops and support to modern-day Mexico. As trading routes over the seas were established by the works of Columbus, Magellan, and Elcano, land support system was established as the trails of Cortes' conquest to the capital.
Human infections gained worldwide transmission vectors for the first time: from Africa and Eurasia to the Americas and
vice versa
.
[7]
[8]
[9]
The
spread of Old World diseases
, including
smallpox
,
influenza
, and
typhus
, led to the deaths of many indigenous inhabitants of the
New World
.
In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports.
[10]
[11]
By the late 16th century, gold and silver imports from the Americas provided one-fifth of Spain's total budget.
[12]
Background
[
edit
]
Contrary to popular belief, many conquistadors were not trained warriors, but mostly artisans, lesser nobility or farmers seeking an opportunity to advance themselves in the new world since they had limited opportunities in Spain.
[13]
A few also had crude firearms known as
arquebuses
. Their units (
compania
) would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were mostly composed of Spanish troops, as well as soldiers from other parts of Europe and Africa.
Native allied troops were largely infantry equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of young men without military experience,
Catholic clergy
who helped with administrative duties, and soldiers with military training. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans, some of whom were also slaves. They were not only made to fight in the battlefield but also to serve as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes.
India Catalina
and
Malintzin
were Native American women slaves who were forced to work for the Spaniards.
[
citation needed
]
Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian. Many foreigners
Hispanicised
their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown. For example,
Ioannis Fokas
(known as Juan de Fuca) was a Castilian of Greek origin who discovered the
strait that bears his name
between
Vancouver Island
and
Washington state
in 1592. German-born
Nikolaus Federmann
, Hispanicised as Nicolas de Federman, was a
conquistador
in
Venezuela
and Colombia. The Venetian
Sebastiano Caboto
was Sebastian Caboto,
Georg von Speyer
Hispanicised as Jorge de la Espira, Eusebio Francesco Chini Hispanicised as
Eusebio Kino
,
Wenceslaus Linck
was Wenceslao Linck,
Ferdinand Kon??ak
, was Fernando Consag,
Amerigo Vespucci
was Americo Vespucio, and the Portuguese
Aleixo Garcia
was known as Alejo Garcia in the Castilian army.
The origin of many people in mixed expeditions was not always distinguished. Various occupations, such as sailors, fishermen, soldiers and nobles employed different languages (even from unrelated language groups), so that crew and settlers of Iberian empires recorded as
Galicians
from Spain were actually using Portuguese, Basque, Catalan, Italian and
Languedoc
languages, which were wrongly identified.
Castilian law banned Spanish women from travelling to America unless they were married and accompanied by a husband. Women who travelled thus include Maria de Escobar,
Maria Estrada
, Marina Velez de Ortega, Marina de la Caballeria, Francisca de Valenzuela, Catalina de Salazar. Some conquistadors married Native American women or had illegitimate children.
European young men enlisted in the army because it was one way out of poverty. Catholic priests instructed the soldiers in mathematics, writing, theology, Latin, Greek, and history, and wrote letters and official documents for them. King's army officers taught military arts. An uneducated young recruit could become a military leader, elected by their fellow professional soldiers, perhaps based on merit. Others were born into
hidalgo
families, and as such they were members of the Spanish
nobility
with some studies but without economic resources. Even some rich nobility families' members became soldiers or missionaries, but mostly not the firstborn heirs.
The two most famous conquistadors were
Hernan Cortes
who conquered the
Aztec Empire
and
Francisco Pizarro
who led the conquest of the
Inca Empire
. They were second cousins born in
Extremadura
, where many of the Spanish conquerors were born.
Catholic religious orders that participated and supported the exploration, evangelizing and pacifying, were mostly
Dominicans
,
Carmelites
,
Franciscans
and
Jesuits
, for example
Francis Xavier
,
Bartolome de Las Casas
,
Eusebio Kino
,
Juan de Palafox y Mendoza
or
Gaspar da Cruz
. In 1536, Dominican friar Bartolome de las Casas went to
Oaxaca
to participate in a series of discussions and debates among the Bishops of the Dominican and Franciscan orders. The two orders had very different approaches to the conversion of the Indians. The Franciscans used a method of mass conversion, sometimes baptizing many thousands of Indians in a day. This method was championed by prominent Franciscans such as
Toribio de Benavente
.
The conquistadors took many different roles, including religious leader,
harem
keeper, King or Emperor, deserter and
Native American
warrior.
Caramuru
was a Portuguese settler in the
Tupinamba
Indians.
Gonzalo Guerrero
was a Maya war leader for Nachan can, Lord of
Chactemal
.
Geronimo de Aguilar
, who had taken holy orders in his native Spain, was captured by Maya lords too, and later was a soldier with Hernan Cortes. Francisco Pizarro had children with more than 40 women, many of whom were
nusta
. The
chroniclers
Pedro Cieza de Leon
,
Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes
,
Diego Duran
,
Juan de Castellanos
and friar
Pedro Simon
wrote about the Americas.
After Mexico fell, Hernan Cortes's enemies
Bishop Fonseca
,
Diego Velazquez de Cuellar
,
Diego Columbus
and
Francisco Garay
[14]
were mentioned in Cortes' fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy.
The division of the booty produced bloody conflicts, such as the one between Pizarro and De Almagro. After present-day Peruvian territories fell to Spain,
Francisco Pizarro
dispatched
El Adelantado
,
Diego de Almagro
, before they became enemies to the Inca Empire's northern city of
Quito
to claim it. Their fellow conquistador
Sebastian de Belalcazar
, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito. The arrival of
Pedro de Alvarado
from the lands known today as
Mexico
in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for De Almagro and Belalcazar. De Alvarado left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro. De Almagro was executed in 1538, by
Hernando Pizarro
's orders. In 1541, supporters of
Diego Almagro II
assassinated Francisco Pizarro in Lima. In 1546, De Belalcazar ordered the execution of
Jorge Robledo
, who governed a neighbouring province in yet another land-related vendetta. De Belalcazar was tried in absentia, convicted and condemned for killing Robledo and for other offenses pertaining to his involvement in the wars between armies of conquistadors.
Pedro de Ursua
was killed by his subordinate
Lope de Aguirre
who crowned himself king while searching for
El Dorado
. In 1544, Lope de Aguirre and Melchor Verdugo (a
converso
Jew) were at the side of Peru's first viceroy Blasco Nunez Vela, who had arrived from Spain with orders to implement the
New Laws
and suppress the
encomiendas
.
Gonzalo Pizarro
,
another brother
of Francisco Pizarro, rose in revolt, killed viceroy
Blasco Nunez Vela
and most of his Spanish army in the battle in 1546, and Gonzalo attempted to have himself crowned king.
The Emperor commissioned bishop
Pedro de la Gasca
to restore the peace, naming him president of the
Audiencia
and providing him with unlimited authority to punish and pardon the rebels. Gasca repealed the
New Laws
, the issue around which the rebellion had been organized. Gasca convinced
Pedro de Valdivia
, explorer of Chile,
Alonso de Alvarado
another searcher for
El Dorado
, and others that if he were unsuccessful, a royal fleet of 40 ships and 15,000 men was preparing to sail from
Seville
in June.
[
clarification needed
]
History
[
edit
]
Early Portuguese period
[
edit
]
Infante
Dom
Henry the Navigator
of Portugal, son of
King Joao I
, became the main sponsor of exploration travels. In 1415, Portugal conquered
Ceuta
, its first overseas colony.
Throughout the 15th century,
Portuguese explorers
sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for
tradable commodities
such as firearms, spices, silver, gold, and
slaves
crossing Africa and India. In 1434 the first consignment of
slaves
was brought to
Lisbon
; slave trading was the most profitable branch of Portuguese commerce until the Indian subcontinent was reached. Due to the importation of the slaves as early as 1441, the kingdom of Portugal was able to establish a number of population of slaves throughout the Iberia due to its slave markets' dominance within Europe. Before the Age of Conquest began, the continental Europe already associated darker skin color with slave-class, attributing to the slaves of African origins. This sentiment traveled with the conquistadors when they began their explorations into the Americas. The predisposition inspired a lot of the entradas to seek slaves as part of the conquest.
Birth of the Spanish Kingdom
[
edit
]
After his father's death in 1479,
Ferdinand II of Aragon
married Isabella of Castile, unifying both kingdoms and creating the
Kingdom of Spain
. He later tried to incorporate the kingdom of Portugal by marriage. Notably, Isabella supported Columbus's first voyage that launched the spanish conquistadors into action.
The Iberian Peninsula was largely divided before the hallmark of this marriage. Five independent kingdoms: Portugal in the West, Aragon and Navarre in the East, Castile in the large center, and Granada in the south, all had independent sovereignty and competing interests. The conflict between Christians and Muslims to control Iberia, which started with North Africa's Muslim invasion in 711, lasted from the years 718 to 1492.
[6]
Christians, fighting for control, successfully pushed the Muslims back to Granada, which was the Muslims' last control of the Iberian Peninsula.
The marriage between Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of Castile resulted in joint rule by the spouses of the two kingdoms, honoured as the "Catholic Monarchs" by Pope Alexander VI.
[6]
Together, the Crown Kings saw about the fall of Granada, victory over the Muslim minority, and expulsion or forcibly converted Jews and non-Christians to turn Iberia into a religious homogeneity.
Treaties
[
edit
]
The 1492 discovery of the
New World
by Spain rendered desirable a
delimitation
of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration. Thus dividing the world into two areas of exploration and colonization. This was settled by the
Treaty of Tordesillas
(7 June 1494) which modified the delimitation authorized by
Pope Alexander VI
in two
bulls
issued on 4 May 1493. The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which might be discovered east of a
meridian
drawn from the
Arctic
Pole to the
Antarctic
, at a distance of 370 leagues (1,800 km) west of
Cape Verde
. Spain received the lands west of this line.
The known means of measuring
longitude
were so inexact that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined,
[15]
subjecting the treaty to diverse interpretations. Both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to the Moluccas depended on the treaty. It was particularly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of their new-found,
[
clarification needed
]
particularly when, in 1497?1499, Vasco da Gama completed the voyage to India.
Later, when Spain established a route to the Indies from the west, Portugal arranged a second treaty, the
Treaty of Zaragoza
.
Spanish exploration
[
edit
]
Colonization of the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, and South America
[
edit
]
Sevilla la Nueva
, established in 1509, was the first Spanish settlement on the island of
Jamaica
, which the Spaniards called
Isla de Santiago
. The capital was in an unhealthy location
[16]
and consequently moved around 1534 to the place they called "Villa de Santiago de la Vega", later named
Spanish Town
, in present-day
Saint Catherine Parish
.
[17]
After first landing on "
Guanahani
" in
the Bahamas
, Columbus found the island which he called "Isla Juana", later named Cuba.
[18]
In 1511, the first
Adelantado
of
Cuba
,
Diego Velazquez de Cuellar
founded the island's first Spanish settlement at Baracoa; other towns soon followed, including
Havana
, which was founded in 1515.
After he pacified
Hispaniola
, where the native Indians had revolted against the administration of governor
Nicolas de Ovando
, Diego Velazquez de Cuellar led the conquest of Cuba in 1511 under orders from Viceroy
Diego Columbus
and was appointed governor of the island. As governor he authorized expeditions to explore lands further west, including the 1517
Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba expedition
to
Yucatan
.
Diego Velazquez
, ordered expeditions, one led by his nephew,
Juan de Grijalva
, to Yucatan and the Hernan Cortes expedition of 1519. He initially backed Cortes's expedition to Mexico, but because of his personal enmity for Cortes later ordered
Panfilo de Narvaez
to arrest him. Grijalva was sent out with four ships and some 240 men.
[19]
Hernan Cortes, led an expedition (entrada) to Mexico, which included Pedro de Alvarado and Bernardino Vazquez de Tapia. The Spanish campaign against the Aztec Empire had its final victory on 13 August 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native Tlaxcalan warriors led by Cortes and Xicotencatl the Younger captured the emperor Cuauhtemoc and Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. The fall of Tenochtitlan marks the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico, and they established their capital of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. The
Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
was one of the most significant events in world history.
In 1516,
Juan Diaz de Solis
, discovered the
estuary
formed by the
confluence
of the
Uruguay River
and the
Parana River
.
In 1517,
Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba
sailed from
Cuba
in search of slaves along the coast of
Yucatan
.
[20]
[21]
The expedition returned to Cuba to report on the discovery of this new land.
After receiving notice from
Juan de Grijalva
of gold in the area of what is now
Tabasco
, the
governor of Cuba
,
Diego de Velasquez
, sent a larger force than had previously sailed, and appointed Cortes as Captain-General of the Armada. Cortes then applied all of his funds, mortgaged his estates and borrowed from merchants and friends to outfit his ships. Velasquez may have contributed to the effort, but the government of Spain offered no financial support.
[22]
Pedro Arias Davila
, Governor of the Island
La Espanola
was descended from a
converso
's family. In 1519 Davila founded
Darien
, then in 1524 he founded Panama City and moved his capital there laying the basis for the exploration of South America's west coast and the subsequent
conquest of Peru
. Davila was a soldier in wars against Moors at
Granada
in Spain, and in North Africa, under
Pedro Navarro
intervening in the Conquest of
Oran
. At the age of nearly seventy years he was made commander in 1514 by Ferdinand of the largest Spanish expedition.
Davila sent
Gil Gonzalez Davila
to explore northward, and
Pedro de Alvarado
to
explore Guatemala
. In 1524 he sent another expedition with
Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba
, executed there in 1526 by Davila, by then aged over 85. Davila's daughters married Rodrigo de Contreras and conquistador of Florida and Mississippi, the
Governor of Cuba
Hernando de Soto
.
Davila made an agreement with Francisco Pizarro and
Diego de Almagro
, which brought about the discovery of Peru, but withdrew in 1526 for a small compensation, having lost confidence in the outcome. In 1526 Davila was superseded as Governor of Panama by
Pedro de los Rios
, but became governor in 1527 of
Leon
in Nicaragua.
An expedition commanded by Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526.
[23]
After one more expedition in 1529, Pizarro received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. The approval read: "In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Inca. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in New Castile."
[24]
The
Viceroyalty of Peru
was established in 1542, encompassing all Spanish holdings in South America.
In early 1536, the Adelantado of
Canary Islands
,
Pedro Fernandez de Lugo
, arrived to
Santa Marta
, a city founded in 1525 by
Rodrigo de Bastidas
in modern-day Colombia, as governor. After some expeditions to the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
, Fernandez de Lugo sent an expedition to the interior of the territory, initially looking for a land path to Peru following the
Magdalena River
. This expedition was commanded by Licentiate
Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada
, who ended up discovering and conquering the indigenous
Muisca
, and establishing the
New Kingdom of Granada
, which almost two centuries would be a viceroyalty. Jimenez de Quesada also founded the capital of Colombia,
Santafe de Bogota
.
Juan Diaz de Solis
arrived again to the renamed
Rio de la Plata
, literally river of the silver, after the Incan conquest. He sought a way to transport the Potosi's silver to Europe. For a long time due to the Incan silver mines,
Potosi
was the most important site in Colonial Spanish America, located in the current
department of Potosi
in Bolivia
[25]
and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint. The first settlement in the way was the fort of
Sancti Spiritu
, established in 1527 next to the
Parana River
. Buenos Aires was established in 1536, establishing the
Governorate of the Rio de la Plata
.
[26]
Africans were also conquistadors in the early conquest campaigns in the Caribbean and Mexico. In the 1500s there were enslaved black and free black
[
clarification needed
]
sailors on Spanish ships crossing the Atlantic and developing new routes of conquest and trade in the Americas.
[27]
After 1521, the wealth and credit generated by the acquisition of the Aztec Empire funded auxiliary forces of black conquistadors that could number as many as five hundred. Spaniards recognized the value of these fighters.
[
citation needed
]
One of the black conquistadors who fought against the Aztecs and survived the destruction of their empire was
Juan Garrido
. Born in Africa, Garrido lived as a young slave in Portugal before being sold to a Spaniard and acquiring his freedom fighting in the conquests of Puerto Rico, Cuba, and other islands. He fought as a free servant or auxiliary, participating in Spanish expeditions to other parts of Mexico (including Baja California) in the 1520s and 1530s. Granted a house plot in Mexico City, he raised a family there, working at times as a guard and town crier. He claimed to have been the first person to plant wheat in Mexico.
[28]
Sebastian Toral was an African slave and one of the first black conquistadors in the New World. While a slave, he went with his Spanish owner on a campaign. He was able to earn his freedom during this service. He continued as a free conquistador with the Spaniards to fight the Maya in Yucatan in 1540. After the conquests he settled in the city of Merida in the newly formed colony of Yucatan with his family. In 1574, the Spanish crown ordered that all slaves and free blacks in the colony had to pay a tribute to the crown. However, Toral wrote in protest of the tax based on his services during his conquests. The Spanish king responded that Toral need not pay the tax because of his service. Toral died a veteran of three transatlantic voyages and two Conquest expeditions, a man who had successfully petitioned the great Spanish King, walked the streets of Lisbon, Seville, and Mexico City, and helped found a capital city in the Americas.
[29]
Juan Valiente
was born West Africa and purchased by Portuguese traders from African slavers. Around 1530 he was purchased by Alonso Valiente to be a slaved domestic servant in Puebla, Mexico. In 1533, Juan Valiente made a deal with his owner to allow him to be a conquistador for four years with the agreement that all earnings would come back to Alonso. He fought for many years in Chile and Peru. By 1540, he was a captain, horseman, and partner in Pedro de Valdivia's company in Chile. He was later awarded an estate in Santiago; a city he would help Valdivia found. Both Alonso and Valiente tried to contact the other to make an agreement about Valiente's manumission and send Alonso his awarded money. They were never able to reach each other and Valiente died in 1553 in the Battle of Tucapel.
[30]
Other black conquistadors include Pedro Fulupo, Juan Bardales, Antonio Perez, and Juan Portugues. Pedro Fulupo was a black slave that fought in Costa Rica. Juan Bardales was an African slave that fought in Honduras and Panama. For his service he was granted manumission and a pension of 50 pesos. Antonio Perez was from North Africa, and a free black. He joined the conquest in Venezuela and was made a captain. Juan Portugues fought in the conquests in Venezuela.
[30]
North America colonization
[
edit
]
During the 1500s, the Spanish began to travel through and colonize North America. They were looking for gold in foreign kingdoms. By 1511 there were rumours of
undiscovered lands
to the northwest of
Hispaniola
.
Juan Ponce de Leon
equipped three ships with at least 200 men at his own expense and set out from Puerto Rico on 4 March 1513 to Florida and surrounding coastal area. Another early motive was the search for the
Seven Cities of Gold
, or "Cibola", rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. In 1536
Francisco de Ulloa
, the first documented European to reach the Colorado River, sailed up the Gulf of California and a short distance into the river's delta.
[31]
The
Basques
were fur trading, fishing cod and whaling in Terranova (
Labrador
and
Newfoundland
) in 1520,
[32]
and in Iceland by at least the early 17th century.
[33]
[34]
They established whaling stations at the former, mainly in
Red Bay
,
[35]
and probably established some in the latter as well. In Terranova they hunted
bowheads
and
right whales
, while in Iceland
[36]
they appear to have only hunted the latter. The Spanish fishery in Terranova declined over conflicts between Spain and other European powers during the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
In 1524, the Portuguese
Estevao Gomes
, who had sailed in
Ferdinand Magellan
's fleet, explored Nova Scotia, sailing South through Maine, where he entered
New York Harbor
and the
Hudson River
and eventually reached Florida in August 1525. As a result of his expedition, the 1529
Diego Ribeiro
world map outlined the East coast of North America almost perfectly.
[
citation needed
]
The Spaniard
Cabeza de Vaca
was the leader of the
Narvaez expedition
of 600 men
[37]
that between 1527 and 1535 explored the mainland of North America. From
Tampa Bay, Florida
, on 15 April 1528, they marched through Florida. Traveling mostly on foot, they crossed Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, and Mexican states of
Tamaulipas
,
Nuevo Leon
and
Coahuila
. After several months of fighting native inhabitants through wilderness and
swamp
, the party reached
Apalachee Bay
with 242 men. They believed they were near other Spaniards in Mexico, but there was in fact 1500 miles of coast between them. They followed the coast westward, until they reached the mouth of the
Mississippi River
near to
Galveston Island
.
[
citation needed
]
Later they were enslaved for a few years by various Native American tribes of the upper
Gulf Coast
. They continued through Coahuila and
Nueva Vizcaya
; then down the Gulf of California coast to what is now
Sinaloa
, Mexico, over a period of roughly eight years. They spent years enslaved by the Ananarivo of the Louisiana
Gulf Islands
. Later they were enslaved by the
Hans
, the
Capoques
and others. In 1534 they escaped into the American interior, contacting other
Native American
tribes along the way. Only four men, Cabeza de Vaca,
Andres Dorantes de Carranza
,
Alonso del Castillo Maldonado
, and an
enslaved
Moroccan
Berber
named
Estevanico
, survived and escaped to reach
Mexico City
. In 1539, Estevanico was one of four men who accompanied
Marcos de Niza
as a guide in search of the fabled
Seven Cities of Cibola
, preceding
Coronado
. When the others were struck ill, Estevanico continued alone, opening up what is now New Mexico and Arizona. He was killed at the
Zuni
village of
Hawikuh
in present-day New Mexico.
[
citation needed
]
The viceroy of
New Spain
Antonio de Mendoza
, for whom is named the
Codex Mendoza
, commissioned several expeditions to explore and establish settlements in the northern lands of New Spain in 1540?1542.
Francisco Vazquez de Coronado
reached
Quivira
in central Kansas.
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
explored the western coastline of
Alta California
in 1542?1543. Vazquez de Coronado's 1540?1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent
Garcia Lopez de Cardenas
to lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance of Hopi Indians, Cardenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon.
[38]
However, Cardenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at six feet (1.8 m) and estimating 300-foot-tall (91 m) rock formations to be the size of a person. After unsuccessfully attempting to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather.
[39]
In 1540,
Hernando de Alarcon
and his fleet reached the mouth of the
Colorado River
, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado's expedition. Alarcon may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present-day California?Arizona border. However, Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcon eventually gave up and left.
Melchior Diaz
reached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcon, but the latter was already gone by the time of Diaz's arrival. Diaz named the Colorado River
Rio del Tizon
, while the name
Colorado
("Red River") was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River.
In 1540, expeditions under Hernando de Alarcon and Melchior Diaz visited the area of
Yuma
and immediately saw the natural crossing of the Colorado River from Mexico to California by land as an ideal spot for a city, as the Colorado River narrows to slightly under 1000 feet wide in one small point. Later military expeditions that crossed the Colorado River at the
Yuma Crossing
include
Juan Bautista de Anza
's (1774).
The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free black domestic servant from Seville and Miguel Rodriguez, a white Segovian conquistador in 1565 in St. Augustine (Spanish Florida), is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in the continental United States.
[40]
The
Chamuscado and Rodriguez Expedition
explored New Mexico in 1581?1582. They explored a part of the route visited by Coronado in
New Mexico
and other parts in the southwestern United States between 1540 and 1542.
The viceroy of New Spain Don
Diego Garcia Sarmiento
sent another expedition in 1648 to explore, conquer and colonize the Californias.
Asia and Oceania colonization, and Pacific exploration
[
edit
]
In 1525,
Charles I of Spain
ordered an expedition led by friar
Garcia Jofre de Loaisa
to go to Asia by the western route to colonize the
Maluku Islands
(known as Spice Islands, now part of Indonesia), thus crossing first the Atlantic and then the Pacific oceans.
Ruy Lopez de Villalobos
sailed to the Philippines in 1542?1543. From 1546 to 1547
Francis Xavier
worked in Maluku among the peoples of
Ambon Island
,
Ternate
, and
Morotai
, and laid the foundations for the Christian religion there.
In 1564,
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
was commissioned by the viceroy of New Spain,
Luis de Velasco
, to explore the Maluku Islands where Magellan and Ruy Lopez de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The expedition was ordered by
Philip II of Spain
, after whom the
Philippines
had earlier been named by Villalobos.
El Adelantado
Legazpi established settlements in the East Indies and the
Pacific Islands
in 1565. He was the first governor-general of the
Spanish East Indies
. After obtaining peace with various indigenous tribes, Lopez de Legazpi made the Philippines the capital in 1571.
[
clarification needed
]
The Spanish settled and took control of
Tidore
in 1603 to trade spices and counter Dutch encroachment in the archipelago of Maluku. The Spanish presence lasted until 1663, when the settlers and military were moved back to the Philippines. Part of the Ternatean population chose to leave with the Spanish, settling near
Manila
in what later became the
municipality of Ternate
. Spanish
galleons
traveled across the Pacific Ocean between
Acapulco
in Mexico and Manila.
In 1542,
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
traversed the coast of California and named many of its features. In 1601,
Sebastian Vizcaino
mapped the coastline in detail and gave new names to many features.
Martin de Aguilar
, lost from the expedition led by Sebastian Vizcaino, explored the Pacific coast as far north as
Coos Bay
in present-day
Oregon
.
[41]
Since the 1549 arrival to Kagoshima (Kyushu) of a group of Jesuits with St. Francis Xavier missionary and Portuguese traders, Spain was interested in Japan. In this first group of Jesuit missionaries were included Spaniards Cosme de Torres and Juan Fernandez.
In 1611, Sebastian Vizcaino surveyed the east coast of Japan and from the year of 1611 to 1614 he was ambassador of King Felipe III in Japan returning to Acapulco in the year of 1614.
[
citation needed
]
In 1608, he was sent to search for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro (island of gold) and Rico de Plata (island of silver).
[42]
Portuguese exploration
[
edit
]
As a seafaring people in the south-westernmost region of Europe, the Portuguese became natural leaders of exploration during the Middle Ages. Faced with the options of either accessing other European markets by sea, by exploiting its seafaring prowess, or by land, and facing the task of crossing
Castile
and Aragon territory, it is not surprising that goods were sent via the sea to England,
Flanders
, Italy and the
Hanseatic league
towns.
[
citation needed
]
One important reason was the need for alternatives to the expensive eastern trade routes that followed the
Silk Road
. Those routes were dominated first by the republics of
Venice
and
Genoa
, and then by the Ottoman Empire after the conquest of
Constantinople
in 1453. The Ottomans barred European access. For decades the Spanish Netherlands ports produced more revenue than the colonies since all goods brought from Spain, Mediterranean possessions, and the colonies were sold directly there to neighbouring European countries: wheat, olive oil, wine, silver, spice, wool and silk were big businesses.
[
citation needed
]
The gold brought home from
Guinea
stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese, and its European neighbours, especially Spain. Apart from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of discovery were highly profitable.
They had benefited from Guinea's connections with neighbouring Iberians and north African Muslim states. Due to these connections,
mathematicians
and experts in naval technology appeared in Portugal. Portuguese and foreign experts made several breakthroughs in the fields of mathematics, cartography and naval technology.
Under
Afonso V
(1443?1481), surnamed the African, the
Gulf of Guinea
was explored as far as Cape St. Catherine (
Cabo Santa Caterina
),
[44]
[45]
[46]
and three expeditions in 1458, 1461 and 1471, were sent to
Morocco
; in 1471 Arzila (
Asila
) and Tangier were captured from the Moors. Portuguese explored the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans before the Iberian Union period (1580?1640). Under
John II
(1481?1495) the fortress of
Sao Jorge da Mina
, the modern Elmina, was founded for the protection of the Guinea trade.
Diogo Cao
, or Can, discovered the
Congo
in 1482 and reached
Cape Cross
in 1486.
In 1483, Diogo Cao sailed up the uncharted
Congo River
, finding Kongo villages and becoming the first European to encounter the
Kongo kingdom
.
[47]
On 7 May 1487, two Portuguese envoys,
Pero da Covilha
and
Afonso de Paiva
, were sent traveling secretly overland to gather information on a possible sea route to India, but also to inquire about Prester John. Covilha managed to reach Ethiopia. Although well received, he was forbidden to depart.
Bartolomeu Dias
crossed the
Cape of Good Hope
in 1488, thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea.
In 1498,
Vasco da Gama
reached India. In 1500,
Pedro Alvares Cabral
discovered Brazil, claiming it for Portugal.
[48]
In 1510,
Afonso de Albuquerque
conquered
Goa
in India,
Ormuz
in the
Persian Strait
, and
Malacca
. The Portuguese sailors sailed eastward to such places as Taiwan, Japan, and the island of
Timor
. Several writers have also suggested the Portuguese were the first Europeans to discover Australia and New Zealand.
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
Alvaro Caminha
, in Cape Verde islands, who received the land as a grant from the crown, established a colony with Jews forced to stay on
Sao Tome Island
.
Principe
island was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult; however, the Jewish settlement was a success and their descendants settled many parts of Brazil.
[54]
From their peaceful settlings in secured islands along Atlantic Ocean (archipelagos and islands such as Madeira, the Azores, Cape Verde, Sao Tome, Principe, and Annobon) they travelled to coastal enclaves trading almost every goods of African and Islander areas like spices (hemp, opium, garlic), wine, dry fish, dried meat, toasted flour, leather, fur of tropical animals and seals, whaling ... but mainly ivory, black slaves, gold and hardwoods. They maintaining trade ports in Congo (M'banza), Angola, Natal (City of Cape Good Hope, in Portuguese "Cidade do Cabo da Boa Esperanca"), Mozambique (Sofala), Tanzania (Kilwa Kisiwani), Kenya (Malindi) to Somalia. The Portuguese following the maritime trade routes of Muslims and Chinese traders, sailed the Indian Ocean. They were on
Malabar Coast
since 1498 when
Vasco da Gama
reached Anjadir, Kannut, Kochi and
Calicut
.
Da Gama in 1498 marked the beginning of Portuguese influence in Indian Ocean. In 1503 or 1504,
Zanzibar
became part of the
Portuguese Empire
when Captain Ruy Lourenco Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace.
[55]
: page: 99
Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general. Around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique.
[56]
: 15
It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar. The first English ship to visit Unguja, the
Edward Bonaventure
in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a trade depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique. "In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local 'king,' the predecessor of the Mwinyi Mkuu of Dunga."
[57]
: 81
This hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on
Pemba
around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasa's slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier.
After 1500: West and East Africa, Asia, and the Pacific
[
edit
]
In west Africa
Cidade de Congo de Sao Salvador
was founded some time after the arrival of the
Portuguese
, in the pre-existing capital of the local dynasty ruling at that time (1483), in a city of the Luezi River valley. Portuguese were established supporting one Christian local dynasty ruling suitor.
When
Afonso I of Kongo
was established the
Roman Catholic Church in Kongo kingdom
. By 1516, Afonso I sent various of his children and nobles to Europe to study, including his son Henrique Kinu a Mvemba, who was elevated to the status of bishop in 1518. Afonso I wrote a series of letters to the kings of Portugal
Manuel I
and
Joao III of Portugal
concerning to the behavior of the Portuguese in his country and their role in the developing
slave trade
, complaining of Portuguese complicity in purchasing illegally enslaved people and the connections between Afonso's men, Portuguese mercenaries in Kongo's service and the capture and sale of slaves by Portuguese.
[58]
The aggregate of Portugal's colonial holdings in India were
Portuguese India
. The period of European contact of
Ceylon
began with the arrival of Portuguese soldiers and
explorers
of the expedition of
Lourenco de Almeida
, the son of
Francisco de Almeida
, in 1505.
[59]
The Portuguese founded a fort at the port city of
Colombo
in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts, political manoeuvres and conquests, the Portuguese extended their control over the
Sinhalese kingdoms
, including
Jaffna
(1591),
[60]
Raigama
(1593),
Sitawaka
(1593), and
Kotte
(1594,)
[61]
but the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control failed.
[62]
The Portuguese, led by
Pedro Lopes de Sousa
, launched a full-scale military invasion of the
Kingdom of Kandy
in the
Danture campaign
of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army wiped out by Kandyan
guerrilla warfare
.
[63]
[64]
More envoys were sent in 1507 to Ethiopia, after
Socotra
was taken by the Portuguese. As a result of this mission, and facing Muslim expansion, Queen Regent
Eleni of Ethiopia
sent ambassador
Mateus
to King
Manuel I of Portugal
and to the Pope, in search of a coalition. Mateus reached Portugal via Goa, having returned with a Portuguese embassy, along with priest
Francisco Alvares
in 1520. Francisco Alvares book, which included the testimony of Covilha, the
Verdadeira Informacao das Terras do Preste Joao das Indias
("A True Relation of the Lands of Prester John of the Indies") was the first direct account of Ethiopia, greatly increasing European knowledge at the time, as it was presented to the pope, published and quoted by
Giovanni Battista Ramusio
.
[65]
In 1509, the Portuguese under Francisco de Almeida won a critical victory in the
Battle of Diu
against a joint
Mamluk
and Arab fleet sent to counteract their presence in the
Arabian Sea
. The retreat of the Mamluks and Arabs enabled the Portuguese to implement their strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.
[66]
Afonso de Albuquerque
set sail in April 1511 from Goa to Malacca with a force of 1,200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships.
[67]
Following his
capture
of the city on 24 August 1511, it became a strategic base for Portuguese expansion in the East Indies; consequently the Portuguese were obliged to build a fort they named
A Famosa
to defend it. That same year, the Portuguese, desiring a commercial alliance, sent an ambassador,
Duarte Fernandes
, to the
Kingdom of Ayutthaya
, where he was well received by King
Ramathibodi II
.
[68]
In 1526, a large force of Portuguese ships under the command of
Pedro Mascarenhas
was sent to conquer
Bintan
, where Sultan
Mahmud
was based. Earlier expeditions by
Diogo Dias
and
Afonso de Albuquerque
had explored that part of the Indian Ocean, and discovered several islands new to Europeans. Mascarenhas served as Captain-Major of the Portuguese colony of Malacca from 1525 to 1526, and as
viceroy
of Goa, capital of the Portuguese possessions in Asia, from 1554 until his death in 1555. He was succeeded by
Francisco Barreto
, who served with the title of "governor-general".
[69]
To enforce a trade monopoly,
Muscat
, and
Hormuz
in the
Persian Gulf
, were seized by
Afonso de Albuquerque
in 1507, and in 1507 and 1515, respectively. He also entered into
diplomatic relations
with
Persia
. In 1513 while trying to conquer
Aden
, an expedition led by Albuquerque cruised the
Red Sea
inside the
Bab al-Mandab
, and sheltered at
Kamaran
island. In 1521, a force under
Antonio Correia
conquered
Bahrain
, ushering in a period of almost eighty years of Portuguese rule of the Persian Gulf.
[70]
In the Red Sea,
Massawa
was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 1541, when a fleet under
Estevao da Gama
penetrated as far as
Suez
.
In 1511, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the city of
Guangzhou
by the sea, and they settled on its port for a commercial monopoly of trade with other nations. They were later expelled from their settlements, but they were allowed the use of
Macau
, which was also occupied in 1511, and to be appointed in 1557 as the base for doing business with Guangzhou. The quasi-monopoly on foreign trade in the region would be maintained by the Portuguese until the early seventeenth century, when the Spanish and Dutch arrived.
The Portuguese
Diogo Rodrigues
explored the Indian Ocean in 1528, he explored the islands of
Reunion
, Mauritius, and
Rodrigues
, naming it the
Mascarene
or
Mascarenhas Islands
, after his countryman Pedro Mascarenhas, who had been there before. The Portuguese presence disrupted and reorganised the Southeast Asian trade, and in eastern Indonesia they introduced Christianity.
[71]
After the
Portuguese
annexed
Malacca
in August 1511, one Portuguese diary noted 'it is thirty years since they became
Moors
'?
[72]
giving a sense of the competition then taking place between Islamic and European influences in the region. Afonso de Albuquerque learned of the route to the
Banda Islands
and other "Spice Islands", and sent an exploratory expedition of three vessels under the command of
Antonio de Abreu
, Simao Afonso Bisigudo and
Francisco Serrao
.
[73]
On the return trip,
Francisco Serrao
was shipwrecked at Hitu Island (northern
Ambon
) in 1512. There he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The rulers of the competing island states of
Ternate
and
Tidore
also sought Portuguese assistance and the newcomers were welcomed in the area as buyers of supplies and spices during a lull in the regional trade due to the temporary disruption of
Javanese
and
Malay
sailings to the area following the 1511 conflict in Malacca. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize nor disrupt this trade.
[74]
Allying himself with Ternate's ruler, Serrao constructed a fortress on that tiny island and served as the head of a
mercenary
band of Portuguese seamen under the service of one of the two local feuding sultans who controlled most of the
spice
trade. Such an outpost far from Europe generally only attracted the most desperate and avaricious, and as such the feeble attempts at Christianization only strained relations with Ternate's Muslim ruler.
[74]
Serrao urged
Ferdinand Magellan
to join him in Maluku, and sent the explorer information about the Spice Islands. Both Serrao and Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another, with Magellan dying in battle in Macatan.
[74]
In 1535 Sultan Tabariji was deposed and sent to Goa in chains, where he converted to Christianity and changed his name to Dom Manuel. After being declared innocent of the charges against him he was sent back to reassume his throne, but died en route at Malacca in 1545. He had however, already bequeathed the island of
Ambon
to his Portuguese godfather Jordao de Freitas. Following the murder of Sultan Hairun at the hands of the Europeans, the Ternateans expelled the hated foreigners in 1575 after a five-year siege.
The Portuguese first landed in
Ambon
in 1513, but it only became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-European state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah (r. 1570?1583) and his son Sultan Said.
[75]
The Portuguese in Ambon, however, were regularly attacked by native Muslims on the island's northern coast, in particular Hitu which had trading and religious links with major port cities on Java's north coast. Altogether, the Portuguese never had the resources or manpower to control the local trade in spices, and failed in attempts to establish their authority over the crucial Banda Islands, the nearby centre of most nutmeg and mace production. Following Portuguese missionary work, there have been large Christian communities in eastern Indonesia particularly among the Ambonese.
[75]
By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, and by the 1590s there were 50,000 to 60,000, although most of the region surrounding Ambon remained Muslim.
[75]
Mauritius
was visited by the Portuguese between 1507 (by Diogo Fernandes Pereira) and 1513. The Portuguese took no interest in the isolated
Mascarene islands
. Their main African base was in
Mozambique
, and therefore the Portuguese navigators preferred to use the
Mozambique Channel
to go to India. The
Comoros
at the north proved to be a more practical port of call.
North America
[
edit
]
Based on the
Treaty of Tordesillas
, Manuel I claimed territorial rights in the area visited by
John Cabot
in 1497 and 1498.
[76]
To that end, in 1499 and 1500, the Portuguese mariner
Joao Fernandes Lavrador
visited the northeast Atlantic coast and
Greenland
and the north Atlantic coast of
Canada
, which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.
[77]
Subsequently, in 1501 and 1502 the
Corte-Real
brothers explored and charted Greenland and the coasts of present-day
Newfoundland and Labrador
, claiming these lands as part of the
Portuguese Empire
. Whether or not the Corte-Reals expeditions were also inspired by or continuing the alleged voyages of their father,
Joao Vaz Corte-Real
(with other Europeans) in 1473, to
Terra Nova do Bacalhau
(
Newfoundland of the Codfish
), remains controversial, as the 16th century accounts of the 1473 expedition differ considerably. In 1520?1521,
Joao Alvares Fagundes
was granted
donatary
rights to the inner islands of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence
. Accompanied by colonists from mainland Portugal and the Azores, he explored Newfoundland and
Nova Scotia
(possibly reaching the
Bay of Fundy
on the
Minas Basin
[78]
), and established a fishing colony on
Cape Breton Island
, that would last some years or until at least 1570s, based on contemporary accounts.
[79]
South America
[
edit
]
Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by
Pedro Alvares Cabral
.
[80]
The Portuguese encountered natives divided into several tribes. The first settlement was founded in 1532.
Some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to Brazil to extract
brazilwood
. Worried about the foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and combat the French. In 1530, an expedition led by
Martim Afonso de Sousa
arrived to patrol the entire coast, ban the French, and to create the first colonial villages, like Sao Vicente, at the coast. As time passed, the Portuguese created the Viceroyalty of Brazil. Colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when
Dom
Joao III
divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies,
[81]
[82]
a model that had previously been used successfully in the colonization of the
Madeira Island
, but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a
Governor-General
to administer the entire colony,
[82]
[83]
Tome de Sousa
.
The Portuguese frequently relied on the help of
Jesuits
and European adventurers who lived together with the aborigines and knew their languages and culture, such as
Joao Ramalho
, who lived among the Guaianaz tribe near today's Sao Paulo, and
Diogo Alvares Correia
, who lived among the Tupinamba natives near today's Salvador de Bahia.
The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes
[84]
while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity.
[85]
[86]
By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important export
[87]
[88]
and the Portuguese imported African slaves
[89]
[90]
to produce it.
Mem de Sa
was the third
Governor-General
of Brazil in 1556, succeeding Duarte da Costa, in
Salvador
of
Bahia
when France founded several colonies.
Mem de Sa was supporting of
Jesuit
priests, Fathers
Manuel da Nobrega
and
Jose de Anchieta
, who founded
Sao Vicente
in 1532, and
Sao Paulo
, in 1554.
French colonists
tried to settle in present-day
Rio de Janeiro
, from 1555 to 1567, the so-called
France Antarctique
episode, and in present-day
Sao Luis
, from 1612 to 1614 the so-called
France Equinoxiale
. Through wars against the French the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking
Rio de Janeiro
in 1567, and to the northwest, taking
Sao Luis
in 1615.
[91]
The Dutch sacked
Bahia
in 1604, and temporarily captured the capital
Salvador
.
In the 1620s and 1630s, the
Dutch West India Company
established many trade posts or colonies. The Spanish silver fleet, which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain, were seized by
Piet Heyn
in 1628. In 1629
Suriname
and
Guyana
were established.
[
clarification needed
]
In 1630 the West India Company conquered part of Brazil, and the colony of
New Holland
(capital Mauritsstad, present-day
Recife
) was founded.
John Maurice of Nassau
prince of
Nassau-Siegen
, was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1636 by the
Dutch West India Company
on recommendation of Frederick Henry. He landed at
Recife
, the port of
Pernambuco
and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637.
By a series of successful expeditions, he gradually extended the Dutch possessions from
Sergipe
on the south to
Sao Luis de Maranhao
in the north.
In 1624 most of the inhabitants of the town
Pernambuco
(
Recife
), in the future Dutch colony of Brazil were
Sephardic Jews
who had been banned by the
Portuguese Inquisition
to this town at the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. As some years afterward the Dutch in Brazil appealed to Holland for craftsmen of all kinds, many Jews went to Brazil; about 600 Jews left Amsterdam in 1642, accompanied by two distinguished scholars ?
Isaac Aboab da Fonseca
and
Moses Raphael de Aguilar
. In the struggle between Holland and Portugal for the possession of Brazil the Dutch were supported by the Jews.
From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in the
Nordeste
and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe, without, however, penetrating the interior. But the colonists of the
Dutch West India Company
in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence in Recife of
John Maurice of Nassau
as governor. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch formally withdrew in 1661.
Portuguese sent military expeditions to the
Amazon rainforest
and conquered British and Dutch strongholds,
[92]
founding villages and forts from 1669.
[93]
In 1680 they reached the far south and founded
Sacramento
on the bank of the
Rio de la Plata
, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day
Uruguay
).
[94]
In the 1690s, gold was discovered by
explorers
in the region that would later be called
Minas Gerais
(General Mines) in current
Mato Grosso
and
Goias
.
Before the Iberian Union period (1580?1640), Spain tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into Brazil with the
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas
. After the Iberian Union period, the
Eastern Strip
were settled by Portugal. This was disputed in vain, and in 1777 Spain confirmed Portuguese sovereignty.
Iberian Union period (1580?1640)
[
edit
]
In 1578, the Saadi
sultan
Ahmad al-Mansur
, contemporary of Queen
Elizabeth I
, defeated Portugal at the
Battle of Ksar El Kebir
, beating the young king
Sebastian I
, a devout Christian who believed in the crusade to defeat Islam. Portugal had landed in North Africa after
Abu Abdallah
asked him to help recover the Saadian throne. Abu Abdallah's uncle, Abd Al-Malik, had taken it from Abu Abdallah with Ottoman Empire support. The defeat of Abu Abdallah and the death of Portugal's king led to the end of the Portuguese
Aviz dynasty
and later to the integration of Portugal and its empire at the
Iberian Union
for 60 years under Sebastian's uncle
Philip II of Spain
. Philip was married to his relative
Mary I
cousin of his father, due to this, Philip was
King of England
and
Ireland
[95]
in a
dynastic union
with Spain.
As a result of the Iberian Union, Phillip II's enemies became Portugal's enemies, such as the Dutch in the
Dutch?Portuguese War
, England or France. The
English-Spanish wars of 1585?1604
were clashes not only in English and Spanish ports or on the sea between them but also in and around the present-day territories of Florida, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Panama. War with the Dutch led to invasions of many countries in Asia, including Ceylon and commercial interests in Japan, Africa (
Mina
), and South America. Even though the Portuguese were unable to capture the entire island of Ceylon, they were able to control its coastal regions for a considerable time.
From 1580 to 1670 mostly, the
Bandeirantes
in Brazil focused on slave hunting, then from 1670 to 1750 they focused on mineral wealth. Through these expeditions and the
Dutch?Portuguese War
,
Colonial Brazil
expanded from the small limits of the
Tordesilhas Line
to roughly the same borders as current Brazil.
In the 17th century, taking advantage of this period of Portuguese weakness, the Dutch occupied many Portuguese territories in Brazil.
John Maurice, Prince of Nassau-Siegen
was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1637 by the
Dutch West India Company
. He landed at Recife, the port of Pernambuco, in January 1637. In a series of expeditions, he gradually expanded from Sergipe on the south to Sao Luis de Maranhao in the north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of
Elmina Castle
, Saint Thomas, and
Luanda
and Angola. The Dutch intrusion into Brazil was long lasting and troublesome to Portugal. The
Seventeen Provinces
captured a large portion of the Brazilian coast including the provinces of
Bahia
, Pernambuco,
Paraiba
, Rio Grande do Norte,
Ceara
, and
Sergipe
, while Dutch privateers sacked Portuguese ships in both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The large area of Bahia and its city, the strategically important Salvador, was recovered quickly by an Iberian military expedition in 1625.
After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal re-established authority over its lost territories including remaining Dutch controlled areas. The other smaller, less developed areas were recovered in stages and relieved of Dutch piracy in the next two decades by local resistance and Portuguese expeditions.
Spanish Formosa
was established in Taiwan, first by Portugal in 1544 and later renamed and repositioned by Spain in
Keelung
. It became a natural defence site for the Iberian Union. The colony was designed to protect Spanish and Portuguese trade from interference by the Dutch base in the south of Taiwan. The Spanish colony was short-lived due to the unwillingness of Spanish colonial authorities in
Manila
to defend it.
Disease in the Americas
[
edit
]
While technological superiority, military strategy and forging local alliances played an important role in the victories of the conquistadors in the Americas, their conquest was greatly facilitated by Old World diseases:
smallpox
,
chicken pox
,
diphtheria
,
typhus
,
influenza
,
measles
,
malaria
, and
yellow fever
. The diseases were carried to distant tribes and villages. This typical path of disease transmission moved much faster than the conquistadors, so that as they advanced, resistance weakened.
[
citation needed
]
Epidemic disease
is commonly cited as the primary reason for the population collapse. The American natives lacked
immunity
to these infections.
[96]
When
Francisco Coronado
and the Spaniards first explored the
Rio Grande
Valley in 1540, in modern New Mexico, some of the chieftains complained of new diseases that affected their tribes.
Cabeza de Vaca
reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in Texas, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us."
[97]
When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Incan empire, a large portion of the population had already died in a
smallpox
epidemic. The first epidemic was recorded in 1529 and killed the emperor
Huayna Capac
, the father of
Atahualpa
. Further epidemics of smallpox broke out in 1533, 1535, 1558 and 1565, as well as typhus in 1546, influenza in 1558, diphtheria in 1614 and measles in 1618.
[98]
: 133
Recently developed
tree-ring
evidence shows that the illness which reduced the population in Aztec Mexico was aided by a great drought in the 16th century, and which continued through the arrival of the Spanish conquest.
[99]
[100]
This has added to the body of epidemiological evidence indicating that
cocoliztli epidemics
(
Nahuatl
name for
viral haemorrhagic fever
) were indigenous fevers transmitted by rodents and aggravated by the drought. The
cocoliztli epidemic from 1545 to 1548
killed an estimated 5 to 15 million people, or up to 80% of the native population. The cocoliztli epidemic from 1576 to 1578 killed an estimated, additional 2 to 2.5 million people, or about 50% of the remainder.
[101]
[102]
The American researcher
Henry Dobyns
said that 95% of the total population of the Americas died in the first 130 years,
[103]
and that 90% of the population of the Inca Empire died in epidemics.
[104]
Cook and Borah of the
University of California at Berkeley
believe that the indigenous population in
Mexico
declined from 25.2 million in 1518 to 700,000 people in 1623, less than 3% of the original population.
[105]
Mythic lands
[
edit
]
The conquistadors found new animal species, but reports confused these with monsters such as giants, dragons, or ghosts.
[106]
Stories about castaways on mysterious islands were common.
An early motive for exploration was the search for Cipango, the place where gold was born. Cathay and Cibao were later goals. The
Seven Cities of Gold
, or "Cibola", was rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest.
[107]
[108]
As early as 1611, Sebastian Vizcaino surveyed the east coast of Japan and searched for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro ('Rich in Gold') and Rico de Plata ('Rich in Silver').
Books such as
The Travels of Marco Polo
fuelled rumours of mythical places. Stories included the half-fabulous Christian Empire of "
Prester John
", the kingdom of the
White Queen
on the "Western Nile" (
Senegal River
), the
Fountain of Youth
, cities of Gold in North and South America such as
Quivira
,
Zuni-Cibola Complex
, and
El Dorado
, and wonderful kingdoms of the
Ten Lost Tribes
and women called
Amazons
. In 1542,
Francisco de Orellana
reached the
Amazon River
, naming it after a tribe of warlike women he claimed to have fought there. Others claimed that the similarity between
Indio
and
Iudio
, the Spanish-language word for 'Jew' around 1500, revealed the indigenous peoples' origin. Portuguese traveller
Antonio de Montezinos
reported that some of the Lost Tribes were living among the
Native Americans of the Andes in South America
.
Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes
wrote that Ponce de Leon was looking for the waters of
Bimini
to cure his aging.
[109]
A similar account appears in
Francisco Lopez de Gomara
's
Historia General de las Indias
of 1551.
[110]
Then in 1575,
Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda
, a shipwreck survivor who had lived with the Native Americans of Florida for 17 years, published his memoir in which he locates the Fountain of Youth in Florida, and says that Ponce de Leon was supposed to have looked for them there.
[111]
This land
[
clarification needed
]
somehow also became confused with the
Boinca
or Boyuca mentioned by
Juan de Solis
, although Solis's navigational data placed it in the
Gulf of Honduras
.
Sir
Walter Raleigh
and some Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French and Portuguese expeditions were looking for the wonderful Guiana empire that gave its name to the present day countries of
the Guianas
.
Several expeditions went in search of these fabulous places, but returned empty-handed, or brought less gold than they had hoped. They found other
precious metals
such as silver, which was particularly abundant in
Potosi
, in modern-day Bolivia. They discovered new routes,
ocean currents
,
trade winds
, crops, spices and other products. In the sail era knowledge of winds and currents was essential, for example, the
Agulhas current
long prevented Portuguese sailors from reaching India. Various places in Africa and the Americas have been named after the imagined cities made of gold, rivers of gold and precious stones.
Shipwrecked off
Santa Catarina island
in present-day Brazil,
Aleixo Garcia
living among the Guaranis heard tales of a "White King" who lived to the west, ruling cities of incomparable riches and splendour. Marching westward in 1524 to find the land of the "White King", he was the first European to cross South America from the East. He discovered a great waterfall
[
clarification needed
]
and the
Chaco Plain
. He managed to penetrate the outer defences of the
Inca Empire
on the hills of the
Andes
, in present-day
Bolivia
, the first European to do so, eight years before Francisco Pizarro.
Garcia looted a booty of silver. When the army of
Huayna Capac
arrived to challenge him, Garcia then retreated with the spoils, only to be assassinated by his Indian allies near
San Pedro
on the
Paraguay River
.
Secrecy
[
edit
]
The Spanish discovery of what they thought at that time was India, and the constant competition of Portugal and Spain led to a desire for secrecy about every trade route and every colony. As a consequence, many documents that could reach other European countries included fake dates and faked facts, to mislead any other nation's possible efforts. For example, the
Island of California
refers to a famous
cartographic
error propagated on many maps during the 17th and 18th centuries, despite contradictory evidence from various explorers. The legend was initially infused with the idea that California was a terrestrial paradise, peopled by black
Amazons
.
The tendency to secrecy and falsification of dates casts doubts about the authenticity of many
primary sources
. Several historians
[
clarification needed
]
have hypothesized that John II may have known of the existence of Brazil and North America as early as 1480, thus explaining his wish in 1494 at the signing of the
Treaty of Tordesillas
, to push the line of influence further west. Many historians suspect that the real documents would have been placed in the Library of Lisbon.
[
clarification needed
]
Unfortunately, a fire following the
1755 Lisbon earthquake
destroyed nearly all of the library's records, but an extra copy
[
clarification needed
]
available in Goa was transferred to Lisbon's Tower of Tombo, during the following 100 years. The Corpo Cronologico (Chronological Corpus), a collection of manuscripts on the Portuguese explorations and discoveries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, was inscribed on
UNESCO
's
Memory of the World Register
in 2007 in recognition of its historical value "for acquiring knowledge of the political, diplomatic, military, economic and religious history of numerous countries at the time of the Portuguese Discoveries."
[112]
Financing and governance
[
edit
]
Ferdinand II King of Aragon and Regent of Castile, incorporated the American territories into the Kingdom of Castile and then withdrew the authority granted to governor Christopher Columbus and the first conquistadors. He established direct royal control with the
Council of the Indies
, the most important administrative organ of the
Spanish Empire
, both in the Americas and in Asia. After unifying Castile, Ferdinand introduced to Castile many laws, regulations and institutions such as the
Inquisition
, that were typical in Aragon. These laws were later used in the new lands.
The
Laws of Burgos
, created in 1512?1513, were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of settlers in Spanish colonial America, particularly with regards to
Native Americans
. They forbade the maltreatment of indigenous people, and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism.
The evolving structure of colonial government was not fully formed until the third quarter of the 16th century; however,
los Reyes Catolicos
designated
Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca
to study the problems related to the colonization process. Rodriguez de Fonseca effectively became minister for the Indies and laid the foundations for the creation of a colonial bureaucracy, combining legislative, executive and judicial functions. Rodriguez de Fonseca presided over the council, which contained a number of members of the
Council of Castile
(
Consejo de Castilla
), and formed a
Junta de Indias
of about eight counsellors. Emperor
Charles V
was already using the term "
Council of the Indies
" in 1519.
The Crown reserved for itself important tools of intervention. The "capitulacion" clearly stated that the conquered territories belonged to the Crown, not to the individual. On the other hand,
concessions
allowed the Crown to guide the Companies conquests to certain territories, depending on their interests. In addition, the leader of the expedition received clear instructions about their duties towards the army, the native population, the type of military action. A written report about the results was mandatory. The army had a royal official, the "veedor". The "veedor" or notary, ensured they complied with orders and instructions and preserved the King's share of the booty.
In practice the Capitan had almost unlimited power. Besides the Crown and the conquistador, they were very important the backers who were charged with anticipating the money to the Capitan and guarantee payment of obligations.
Armed groups sought supplies and funds in various ways. Financing was requested from the King, delegates of the Crown, the nobility, rich merchants or the troops themselves. The more professional campaigns were funded by the Crown. Campaigns were sometimes initiated by inexperienced governors, because in
Spanish Colonial America
, offices were bought or handed to relatives or cronies. Sometimes, an expedition of conquistadors were a group of influential men who had recruited and equipped their fighters, by promising a share of the booty.
Aside from the explorations predominated by Spain and Portugal, other parts of Europe also aided in colonization of the New World. King Charles I was documented to receive loans from the German
Welser family
to help finance the Venezuela expedition for gold.
[6]
With numerous armed groups aiming to launch explorations well into the Age of Conquest, the Crown became indebted, allowing opportunity for foreign European creditors to finance the explorations.
The conquistador borrowed as little as possible, preferring to invest all their belongings. Sometimes, every soldier brought his own equipment and supplies, other times the soldiers received gear as an advance from the conquistador.
The
Pinzon brothers
, seamen of the
Tinto
?
Odiel
participated in Columbus's undertaking.
[113]
They also supported the project economically, supplying money from their personal fortunes.
[114]
Sponsors included governments, the king, viceroys, and local governors backed by rich men. The contribution of each individual conditioned the subsequent division of the booty, receiving a portion the pawn (lancero, piquero, alabardero, rodelero) and twice a man on horseback (caballero) owner of a horse.
[
clarification needed
]
Sometimes part of the booty consisted of women and/or slaves. Even the dogs, important weapons of war in their own right, were in some cases rewarded. The division of the booty produced conflicts, such as the one between Pizarro and Almagro.
Military advantages
[
edit
]
Though vastly outnumbered on foreign and unknown territory, Conquistadors had several military advantages over the native peoples they conquered, military strategies and tactics that were mostly learned from the 781 year war of the
Reconquista
.
Strategy
[
edit
]
One factor was the ability of the conquistadors to manipulate the political situation between indigenous peoples and make alliances against larger empires. To beat the
Inca
civilization, they supported one side of a civil war. The Spanish overthrew the
Aztec
civilization by allying with natives who had been subjugated by more powerful neighbouring tribes and kingdoms. These tactics had been used by the Spanish, for example, in the
Granada War
, the
conquest of the Canary Islands
and
conquest of Navarre
. Throughout the conquest, the indigenous people greatly outnumbered the conquistadors; the conquistador troops never exceeded 2% of the native population. The army with which
Hernan Cortes
besieged
Tenochtitlan
was composed of 200,000 soldiers, of which fewer than 1% were Spaniards.
[98]
: 178
Tactics
[
edit
]
Spanish and Portuguese forces were capable of quickly moving long distances in foreign land, allowing for speed of maneuver to catch outnumbering forces by surprise. Wars were mainly between clans, expelling intruders. On land, these wars combined some European methods with techniques from Muslim bandits in
Al-Andalus
. These tactics consisted of small groups who attempted to catch their opponents by surprise, through an ambush.
In
Mombasa
,
Vasco da Gama
resorted to attacking Arab merchant ships, which were generally unarmed trading vessels without heavy cannons.
Weapons and animals
[
edit
]
Weapons
[
edit
]
Spanish conquistadors in the Americas made extensive use of
swords
,
pikes
, and
crossbows
, with
arquebuses
becoming widespread only from the 1570s.
[115]
A scarcity of firearms did not prevent conquistadors to pioneer the use of mounted arquebusiers, an early form of
dragoon
.
[115]
In the 1540s
Francisco de Carvajal
's use of firearms in the
Spanish civil war in Peru
prefigured the
volley fire
technique that developed in Europe many decades after.
[115]
Animals
[
edit
]
Animals were another important factor for Spanish triumph. On the one hand, the introduction of the horse and other domesticated pack animals allowed them greater mobility unknown to the Indian cultures. However, in the mountains and jungles, the Spaniards were less able to use narrow Amerindian roads and bridges made for pedestrian traffic, which were sometimes no wider than a few feet. In places such as
Argentina
,
New Mexico
and
California
, the indigenous people learned horsemanship, cattle raising, and sheep herding. The use of the new techniques by indigenous groups later became a disputed factor in native resistance to the colonial and American governments.
[
citation needed
]
The Spaniards were also skilled at breeding dogs for war, hunting and protection. The
mastiffs
,
Spanish war dogs
,
[116]
and
sheep dogs
they used in battle were effective as a psychological weapon against the natives, who, in many cases, had never seen domesticated dogs. Although some indigenous peoples did have domestic dogs during the conquest of the Americas, Spanish conquistadors used
Spanish Mastiffs
and other
Molossers
in battle against the
Taino
,
Aztecs
, and
Maya
. These specially trained dogs were feared because of their strength and ferocity. The strongest big breeds of broad-mouthed dogs were
specifically trained
for battle. These
war dogs
were used against barely clothed troops. They were armoured dogs trained to kill and disembowel.
[117]
The most famous of these dogs of war was a mascot of
Ponce de Leon
called
Becerrillo
, the first European dog known to reach North America;
[
citation needed
]
another famous dog called
Leoncico
, the son of
Becerillo
, and the first European dog known to see the Pacific Ocean, was a mascot of
Vasco Nunez de Balboa
and accompanied him on several expeditions.
Nautical science
[
edit
]
The successive expeditions and experience of the Spanish and Portuguese pilots led to a rapid evolution of European nautical science.
Navigation
[
edit
]
In the thirteenth century they were guided by the sun position. For
celestial navigation
like other Europeans, they used Greek tools, like the
astrolabe
and
quadrant
, which they made easier and simpler. They also created the
cross-staff
, or
cane of Jacob
, for measuring at sea the height of the sun and other stars. The
Southern Cross
became a reference upon the arrival of
Joao de Santarem
and
Pedro Escobar
in the Southern hemisphere in 1471, starting its use in celestial navigation. The results varied throughout the year, which required corrections. To address this the Portuguese used the astronomical tables (
Ephemeris
), a precious tool for oceanic navigation, which spread widely in the fifteenth century. These tables revolutionized navigation, enabling
latitude
calculations. The tables of the Almanach Perpetuum, by astronomer
Abraham Zacuto
, published in Leiria in 1496, were used along with its improved astrolabe, by
Vasco da Gama
and
Pedro Alvares Cabral
.
Ship design
[
edit
]
The ship that truly launched the first phase of the discoveries along the African coast was the Portuguese
caravel
. Iberians quickly adopted it for their merchant navy. It was a development based on African fishing boats. They were agile and easier to navigate, with a tonnage of 50 to 160 tons and one to three masts, with
lateen
triangular sails allowing
luffing
. The caravel particularly benefited from a greater capacity to
tack
. The limited capacity for cargo and crew were their main drawbacks, but have not hindered its success. Limited crew and cargo space was acceptable, initially, because as exploratory ships, their "cargo" was what was in the explorer's discoveries about a new territory, which only took up the space of one person.
[118]
Among the famous caravels are
Berrio
and
Caravela Annunciation
. Columbus also used them in his travels.
Long oceanic voyages led to larger ships. "Nau" was the Portuguese archaic synonym for any large ship, primarily
merchant ships
. Due to the piracy that plagued the coasts, they began to be used in the navy and were provided with cannon windows, which led to the classification of "naus" according to the power of its artillery. The
carrack
or nau was a three- or four-
masted
ship. It had a high rounded
stern
with large
aftcastle
,
forecastle
and
bowsprit
at the stem. It was first used by the Portuguese, and later by the Spanish. They were also adapted to the increasing maritime trade. They grew from 200 tons capacity in the 15th century to 500. In the 16th century they usually had two
decks
, stern castles fore and aft, two to four masts with overlapping sails. In India travels in the sixteenth century used carracks, large merchant ships with a high edge and three masts with square sails, that reached 2,000 tons.
Winds and currents
[
edit
]
North Atlantic
gyre
North Atlantic
gyre
North Atlantic
gyre
Indian
Ocean
gyre
North
Pacific
gyre
South
Pacific
gyre
South Atlantic
gyre
World map of the five major ocean gyres
Besides coastal exploration, Portuguese ships also made trips further out to gather
meteorological
and
oceanographic
information. These voyages revealed the archipelagos of
Bissagos Islands
where the Portuguese were defeated by native people in 1535, Madeira, the Azores, Cape Verde, Sao Tome,
Trindade and Martim Vaz
,
Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago
,
Fernando de Noronha
,
Corisco
,
Elobey Grande
,
Elobey Chico
Annobon Island
,
Ascension Island
,
Bioko Island
,
Falkland Islands
,
Principe Island
,
Saint Helena Island
,
Tristan da Cunha
Island and
Sargasso Sea
.
The knowledge of wind patterns and
currents
, the
trade winds
and the
oceanic gyres
in the Atlantic, and the determination of latitude led to the discovery of the best ocean route back from Africa: crossing the Central Atlantic to the Azores, using the winds and currents that spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere because of
atmospheric circulation
and the effect of
Coriolis
, facilitating the way to Lisbon and thus enabling the Portuguese to venture farther from shore, a manoeuvre that became known as the
"volta do mar"
(
return of the sea
). In 1565, the application of this principle in the Pacific Ocean led the Spanish discovering the
Manila galleon
trade route.
Cartography
[
edit
]
In 1339,
Angelino Dulcert
of Majorca produced the
portolan chart
map. Evidently drawing from the information provided in 1336 by
Lanceloto Malocello
sponsored by King
Dinis of Portugal
. It showed
Lanzarote
island, named
Insula de Lanzarotus Marocelus
and marked by a Genoese shield, as well as the island of
Forte Vetura
(
Fuerteventura
) and
Vegi Mari
(
Lobos
), although Dulcert also included some imaginary islands himself, notably
Saint Brendan's Island
, and three islands he names
Primaria
,
Capraria
, and
Canaria
.
[119]
Mestre Jacome was a Majorcan cartographer induced by Portuguese prince
Henry the Navigator
to move to Portugal in the 1420s to train Portuguese map-makers in Majorcan-style cartography.
[120]
'Jacome of Majorca' is even sometimes described as the head of Henry's observatory and "school" at
Sagres
.
[121]
It is thought that
Jehuda Cresques
, son of Jewish cartographer Abraham Cresques of
Palma
in Majorca, and Italian-Majorcan
Angelino Dulcert
were cartographers at the service of Prince Henry. Majorca had many skilled Jewish cartographers. However, the oldest signed Portuguese sea chart is a Portolan made by
Pedro Reinel
in 1485 representing the Western Europe and parts of Africa, reflecting the explorations made by
Diogo Cao
. Reinel was also author of the first nautical chart known with an indication of latitudes in 1504 and the first representation of a
wind rose
.
With his son, cartographer
Jorge Reinel
and
Lopo Homem
, they participated in the making of the atlas known as "Lopo Homem-Reines Atlas" or "
Miller Atlas
", in 1519. They were considered the best cartographers of their time. Emperor Charles V wanted them to work for him. In 1517 King
Manuel I of Portugal
handed Lopo Homem a charter giving him the privilege to certify and amend all
compass
needles in vessels.
[
citation needed
]
The third phase of nautical cartography was characterized by the abandonment of
Ptolemy
's representation of the East and more accuracy in the representation of lands and continents.
Fernao Vaz Dourado
(Goa ?1520 ? ?1580), produced work of extraordinary quality and beauty, giving him a reputation as one of the best cartographers of the time. Many of his charts are large scale.
[
citation needed
]
People
[
edit
]
People in the service of Spain
[
edit
]
- Cristopher Columbus
(
West Indies
, 1492?1504)
- Alonso Fernandez de Lugo
(
Canary Islands
, 1492?1496)
- Hernan Cortes
(
Mexico
, 1518?1522,
Baja California
, 1532?1536)
- Pedro de Alvarado
(Mexico, 1519?1521,
Guatemala
, El Salvador 1523?1527,
Peru
, 1533?1535,
Mexico
, 1540?1541)
- Francisco Pizarro
(Peru, 1509?1535)
- Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada
(Colombia, 1536?1539, Venezuela, 1569?1572)
- Pedro Fernandez de Lugo
(Canary Island, Colombia 1509?1536)
- Pedro de Candia
(
Panama
, 1527,
Colombia
and
Ecuador
, 1528, Peru, 1530)
- Francisco Vasquez de Coronado
(United States, 1540?1542)
- Juan de Onate
(
New Mexico, United States
, 1598?1608)
- Juan Roque (Zape Confraternity)
- Juan Vasquez de Coronado y Anaya
(
Costa Rica
)
- Diego de Almagro
(Peru, 1524?1535,
Chile
, 1535?1537)
- Rodrigo de Bastidas
(
Colombia
and
Panama
, 1500?1527)
- Vasco Nunez de Balboa
(Panama, 1510?1519)
- Juan Ponce de Leon
(
Puerto Rico
, 1508, Florida, 1513?1521)
- Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca
(United States, 1527?1536, 1540?1542)
- Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon
(United States, 1524?1527)
- Sebastian de Belalcazar
(Ecuador and Colombia, 1533?1536)
- Jeronimo Luis de Cabrera
(Peru, Argentina, 16th century)
- Domingo Martinez de Irala
(Argentina and Paraguay, 1535?1556)
- Gonzalo Pizarro
(Peru, 1532?1542)
- Diego Velazquez de Cuellar
(
Cuba
, 1511?1519)
- Juan de Garay
(Peru, Paraguay, Argentina, 16th century)
- Diego de Ordaz
(
Venezuela
, 1532)
- Juan Pizarro
(Peru, 1532?1536)
- Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba
(
Yucatan
, 1517)
- Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba
(
Nicaragua
, 1524)
- Hernando Pizarro
(Peru, 1532?1560)
- Sebastian Caboto
(Uruguay 16th century)
- Jeronimo de Alderete
(Peru, 1535?1540; Chile, 1550?1552)
- Diego Hernandez de Serpa
(Venezuela, 1510?1570)
- Juan de Grijalva
(Yucatan, 1518)
- Francisco de Montejo
(Yucatan, 1527?1546)
- Juan de la Camara
(Yucatan, 1539?1546)
- Nicolas Federmann
(Venezuela and Colombia, 1537?1539).
- Panfilo de Narvaez
(
Spanish Florida
, 1527?1528)
- Diego de Nicuesa
(Panama, 1506?1511)
- Hernan Venegas Carrillo
(Colombia, 1536?1544)
- Cristobal de Olid
(
Honduras
, 1523?1524)
- Francisco de Orellana
(
Amazon River
, 1541?1543)
- Hernando de Soto
(United States, 1539?1542)
- Gonzalo Garcia Zorro
(Colombia, 1536?1544)
- Ines Suarez
, (Chile, 1541)
- Francisco de Aguirre
, Peru,(1536?40), Bolivia,(1538?39) Chile, (1540?1553) and Argentina (1562?64)
- Martin de Urzua y Arizmendi
, count of Lizarraga, (
Peten
, Guatemala, 1696?1697)
- Juan de Cespedes Ruiz
(Colombia, 1521?1543)
- Pedro de Valdivia
(Chile, 1540?1552)
- Jorge Robledo
(Peru and Colombia, 1521?1543)
- Pedro Menendez de Aviles
(Florida, 1565?1567)
- Juan de Sanct Martin
(Colombia, 1536?1550)
- Pedro de Mendoza
(Argentina, 1534?1537)
- Antonio de Lebrija
(Colombia, 1529?1539)
- Alonso de Ribera
(Chile 1599?1617)
- Alonso de Sotomayor
(Chile 1583?1592, Panama 1592?1604)
- Martin Ruiz de Gamboa
(Chile 1552?1590)
- Juan Garrido
(Multiple campaigns 1502?1530,
Hispaniola
, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Florida, Mexico)
- Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
(
Philippines
, 1565?1572)
- Juan de Salcedo
(Philippines, 1565?1576)
- Diego Romo de Vivar y Perez
(Mexico, 17th century)
- Gonzalo Suarez Rendon
(Colombia, 1536?1539)
People in the service of Portugal
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"conquistador"
.
Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
.
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Mary Hill,
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.
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"Spanish Town"
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The numbers for Grijalva's expedition are as given by Bernal Diaz, who participated in the voyage. See Diaz del Castillo (1963, p. 27).
- ^
Clendinnen, Inga
; Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517?1570. (p. 11)
ISBN
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Clendinnen, Inga
; Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517?1570. (p. 12)
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Juan de Samano (9 October 2009).
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Somervill, Barbara (2005).
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Abad de Santillan, pp. 96?140
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Matthew Restall (2009).
The Black Middle: Africans, Mayas, and Spaniards in Colonial Yucatan
. Stanford University Press. pp. xv, 7, 114.
ISBN
978-0-8047-4983-1
.
- ^
Latin America in Colonial Times
. Cambridge University Press. 2011.
- ^
Restall, Matthew (2009).
The Black Middle
. Stanford University Press.
[
page needed
]
- ^
a
b
Restall, Matthew (2003).
Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest
. Stanford University Press.
[
page needed
]
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"John Wesley Powell's Exploration of the Colorado River"
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2012
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Barkham (1984), p. 515.
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"La odisea en Terranova de los balleneros vascos ? GARA"
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. Retrieved
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2017
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Between 1550 and the early 17th century, Red Bay, known as Balea Baya (Whale Bay), was a centre for whaling operations.
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"Balleneros vascos en Islandia"
. Archived from
the original
on 13 April 2012
. Retrieved
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2012
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Cabeza de, Vaca (1542).
La relacion
[
The Story
].
Chap's II-III
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Lankford, pp. 100?101
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J. Michael Francis, PhD,
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on 4 February 2021
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Capitol Names: Individuals Woven into Oregon's History
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Oregon Historical Society
. pp. 9?10.
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Fish, S. (2011).
The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific With an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565?1815
. translated by. AuthorHouse.
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. New York: Random House.
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Collins, Robert O.; Burns, James M. (2007). "Part II, Chapter 12: The arrival of Europeans in sub-Saharan Africa".
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in 1475 when his contract expired Rui de Sequeira had reached Cabo Santa Caterina (Cape Saint Catherine) south of the equator and the Gabon River.
- ^
Arthur Percival, Newton (1970) [1932]. "Vasco da Gama and The Indies".
The Great Age of Discovery
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ISBN
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.
and about the same time Lopo Goncalves crossed the Equator, while Ruy de Sequeira went on to Cape St. Catherine, two degrees south of the line.
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Koch, Peter O. (2003). "Following the Dream of Prince Henry".
To the Ends of the Earth: The Age of the European Explorers
. McFarland & Company. p. 62.
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0-7864-1565-7
.
Gomes was obligated to pledge a small percentage of his profits to the royal treasury. Starting from Sierra Leone in 1469, this monetarily motivated entrepreneurial explorer spent the next five years extending Portugal's claims even further than he had been required, reaching as far south as Cape St. Catherine before his contract came up for renewal.
- ^
Gates, Louis; Anthony Appiah (1999).
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
. p. 1105.
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The standard view of historians is that Cabral was blown off course as he was navigating the currents of the South Atlantic, sighted the coast of South America, and thereby accidentally discovered Brazil. However, for an alternative account of the discovery of Brazil, see
History of Brazil
- ^
Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu.
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.
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. Retrieved
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2017
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"Portuguese visited New Zealand '250 years before Cook'
"
.
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2018
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Stirling, Rose (10 August 2011).
"Ancient facts unfold"
. Retrieved
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2017
– via Stuff.co.nz.
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"Spanish first European NZ explorers? ? National News | TVNZ"
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on 5 January 2015.
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Map proves Portuguese discovered Australia: new book
, in
Reuters
(Wed 21 March 2007) ? (see
Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia
)
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"The Expulsion 1492 Chronicles"
.
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. Psychology Press.
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.
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The East Africa Protectorate
, Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G., published by Edward Arnold, London, 1905, digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008
(
PDF
format).
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Pearce, Francis Barrow (30 May 2017).
"Zanzibar: The Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa"
. Dutton
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2017
.
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. Archived from
the original
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?102.
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.
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Chandra Richard De Silva (2009).
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. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 153.
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Religion, Conflict and Peace in Sri Lanka: The Politics of Interpretation of Nationhoods
. LIT Verlag Munster. p. 135.
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C. Gaston Perera (2007).
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. Vijitha Yapa Publications. p. 148.
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"The European outthrust and encounter: the first phase c. 1400?c. 1700", pp. 85?86
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.
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Farnum, Mabel (1943).
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Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo
(1851) [1535].
Jose Amador de los Rios
(ed.).
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.
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.
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.
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Francisco Lopez de Gomara.
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, second part.
- ^
"Fontaneda"
.
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.
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Ortega, Angel
(1980) [1925],
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, vol. III (facsimile ed.), Diputacion Provincial de Huelva. Servicio de Publicaciones, pp. 37?100,
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- ^
de las Casas, Bartolome
(1875).
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.
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. Retrieved
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On the website of the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
- ^
a
b
c
Espino Lopez, Antonio (2012).
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.
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XXXVI
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.
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.
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Derr, Mark (2004).
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.
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.
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Stannard, David.
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.
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Roger Smith
, "Vanguard of the Empire", Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 30
- ^
Melia (p. 45)
- ^
"Mestre Jacome" the Majorcan cartographer is first mentioned by
Duarte Pacheco Pereira
in his
Esmeraldo de situ Orbis
(c. 1507,
p. 58
).
Joao de Barros
, in his
Decadas de Asia
(1552: I.16
p. 133
) adds that he was also a master instrument-maker.
- ^
"He also from Majorca caused one Master James, a man skilfull (sic) in Navigation and in Cards and Sea Instruments, to be brought into Portugall, there at his charge as it were, to erect a Schoole of Marinership, and to instruct his Countreymen in that Mysterie."
Samuel Purchas
,
Hakluytus Posthumus
, (1625, vol. 2, pt. 2
p. 11
)
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Cervantes, Fernando (2021).
Conquistadores: A New History of Spanish Discovery and Conquest
. Viking.
ISBN
978-1-101-98126-9
.
- Chasteen, John Charles (2001).
Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America
. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
ISBN
978-0-393-97613-7
.
- de Vitoria, Francisco (2006).
De Indis et de Iure Belli Relectiones
. Reprint edition, Lawbook Exchange Ltd.
- Gibson, Charles.
The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico
. Stanford University Press, 1964.
- Hinz, Felix (2014): "Spanish-Indian encounters: the conquest and creation of new empires". In: Robert Aldrich, Kirsten McKenzie (eds.):
The Routledge History of Western Empires
, Routledge, London/ New York,
ISBN
978-0-415-63987-3
, pp. 17?32.
- Innes, Hammond (2002).
The Conquistadors
. London: Penguin.
ISBN
978-0-14-139122-9
.
- Johnson, Lyman, and Sonya Lipsett-Rivera.
The Faces of Honor: Sex, Shame, and Violence in Colonial Latin America
. University of New Mexico Press, 2003.
- Kirkpatrick, F. A. (1934).
The Spanish Conquistadores
. London: A. & C. Black.
- Lockhart, James and Stuart Schwartz (1983).
Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil
. Cambridge University Press.
- Mignolo, Walter D. (1996).
The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality, and Colonization
. University of Michigan Press.
- Restall, Matthew (2003).
Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest
. Oxford University Press.
- Seed, Patricia (1998).
Colonial Spanish America: A Documentary History
. Rowman & Littlefield.
- Varon Gabai, Rafael (2013).
Other Council Fires Were Here Before Ours: A Classic Native American Creation Story as Retold by a Contemporary Seneca/Oneida Writer
. Syracuse University Press.
- Wood, Michael (2000).
Conquistadors
. London: BBC Books.
ISBN
978-0-563-48706-7
.
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