Polar region around Earth's South Pole
The
Antarctic
(
or
, American English also
or
; commonly
)
[Note 1]
is a
polar region
around
Earth
's
South Pole
, opposite the
Arctic
region around the
North Pole
.
The Antarctic comprises the continent of
Antarctica
, the
Kerguelen Plateau
, and other
island territories
located on the
Antarctic Plate
or south of the
Antarctic Convergence
. The Antarctic region includes the
ice shelves
, waters, and all the
island
territories in the
Southern Ocean
situated south of the
Antarctic Convergence
, a zone approximately 32 to 48 km (20 to 30 mi) wide and varying in latitude seasonally.
[4]
The region covers some 20 percent of the
Southern Hemisphere
, of which 5.5 percent (14 million km
2
) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and
ice shelves
south of
60°S latitude
are administered under the
Antarctic Treaty System
.
Biogeographically
, the
Antarctic realm
is one of eight
biogeographic realms
on Earth's land surface.
Climate change in Antarctica
is particularly important because the melting of the
Antarctic ice sheet
has a high potential to add to the global
sea level rise
. Further, this melting also disrupts the flow of
Southern Ocean overturning circulation
, which would have significant effects on the local climate and
marine ecosystem
functioning.
Geography
[
edit
]
As defined by the
Antarctic Treaty System
, the Antarctic region is everything south of the
60°S latitude
. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the
archipelagos
of the
Balleny Islands
,
Peter I Island
,
Scott Island
, the
South Orkney Islands
, and the
South Shetland Islands
.
[5]
However, this area does not include the
Antarctic Convergence
, a transition zone where the cold waters of the
Southern Ocean
collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region.
[6]
Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along
parallels of latitude
and
meridians of longitude
.
[7]
The implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in
Hobart
, Australia, by an efficient system of annual
fishing
quotas, licenses, and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as
satellite
surveillance.
[8]
The islands situated between 60°S latitude parallel to the south and the
Antarctic Convergence
to the north and their respective 200-nautical-mile (370 km)
exclusive economic zones
fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them:
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
(United Kingdom),
Bouvet Island
(Norway), and
Heard and McDonald Islands
(Australia).
Kerguelen Islands
(France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the
Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego
,
Falkland Islands
,
Isla de los Estados
,
Hornos Island
with
Cape Horn
,
Diego Ramirez Islands
,
Campbell Island
,
Macquarie Island
,
Amsterdam
and
Saint Paul
Islands,
Crozet Islands
,
Prince Edward Islands
,
Gough Island
, and
Tristan da Cunha group
remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region.
Ecology
[
edit
]
Antarctica
[
edit
]
A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including:
[9]
[10]
Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant,
Antarctic hair grass
and
Antarctic pearlwort
, but a range of
mosses
,
liverworts
,
lichens
and
macrofungi
.
[11]
Sub-Antarctic Islands
[
edit
]
Biodiversity
among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was a major contributor towards species richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source.
[12]
Conservation
[
edit
]
The Antarctic hosts the world's largest
protected area
comprising 1.07 million km
2
, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012.
[13]
The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the
Greenland National Park
's 972,000 km
2
(375,000 sq mi).
[14]
(While the
Ross Sea
Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55 million km
2
, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.
[15]
[16]
) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the
Polar Code
, adopted by the
International Maritime Organization
(in force since 1 January 2017).
[17]
[18]
Climate change
[
edit
]
Climate change
caused by
greenhouse gas emissions
from human activities occurs everywhere on Earth, and while
Antarctica
is less vulnerable to it than any other continent,
[19]
climate change in Antarctica
has already been observed. There has been an average temperature increase of >0.05 °C/decade since 1957 across the continent, although it had been uneven.
[20]
While
West Antarctica
warmed by over 0.1 °C/decade from the 1950s to the 2000s and the exposed
Antarctic Peninsula
has warmed by 3 °C (5.4 °F) since the mid-20th century,
[21]
the colder and more stable
East Antarctica
had been experiencing cooling until the 2000s.
[22]
[23]
Around Antarctica, the
Southern Ocean
has absorbed more
heat
than any other ocean,
[24]
with particularly strong warming at depths below 2,000 m (6,600 ft)
[25]
: 1230
and around the West Antarctic, which has warmed by 1 °C (1.8 °F) since 1955.
[21]
The warming of Antarctica's territorial waters has caused the weakening or outright collapse of
ice shelves
, which float just offshore of
glaciers
and stabilize them. Many coastal glaciers have been losing mass and retreating, which causes net annual ice loss across Antarctica,
[25]
: 1264
even as the
East Antarctic ice sheet
continues to gain ice inland. By 2100, net ice loss from Antarctica alone is expected to add about 11 cm (5 in) to global
sea level rise
. However,
marine ice sheet instability
may cause West Antarctica to contribute tens of centimeters more if it is triggered before 2100.
[25]
: 1270
With higher warming instability would be much more likely, and could double overall 21st century sea level rise.
[26]
[27]
[28]
The fresh
meltwater
from the ice, 1100-1500 billion tons (GT) per year, dilutes the saline
Antarctic bottom water
,
[29]
[30]
thus weakening the lower cell of the
Southern Ocean overturning circulation
.
[25]
: 1240
Some research tentatively suggests a full collapse of the circulation may occur between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F) of global warming,
[31]
although the full effects are expected to unfold over multiple centuries. They include less
precipitation
in the
Southern Hemisphere
but more in the
Northern Hemisphere
, and an eventual decline of
fisheries
in the Southern Ocean with a potential
collapse
of certain
marine ecosystems
.
[32]
Furthermore, while many Antarctic species remain undiscovered, there are already documented increases in
flora
and large
fauna
such as
penguins
are already seen struggling to retain suitable
habitat
. On ice-free land,
permafrost
thaws, releasing not only
greenhouse gases
, but also formerly frozen
pollution
.
[33]
The West Antarctic ice sheet is likely to melt completely,
[34]
[35]
[36]
unless temperatures are reduced by 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the levels of the year 2020.
[37]
The loss of this ice sheet would take between 2,000 and 13,000 years,
[38]
[39]
although several centuries of high emissions could shorten this timeframe to 500 years.
[40]
A sea-level rise of 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) would occur if the ice sheet collapses leaving ice caps on the mountains and 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) if those ice caps also melt.
[41]
Isostatic rebound
may contribute an additional 1 m (3 ft 3 in) to global sea levels over another 1,000 years.
[40]
In contrast, the East Antarctic ice sheet is far more stable and may only cause a sea-level rise of 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) - 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) from the current level of warming, a small fraction of the 53.3 m (175 ft) contained in the full ice sheet.
[42]
With a global warming of around 3 °C (5.4 °F), vulnerable areas like the
Wilkes Basin
and
Aurora Basin
may collapse over a period of around 2,000 years,
[38]
[39]
potentially adding up to 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels.
[40]
The complete melting and disappearance of the East Antarctic ice sheet would require at least 10,000 years, and it would only occur if global warming reaches 5 °C (9.0 °F) to 10 °C (18 °F).
[38]
[39]
Society
[
edit
]
People
[
edit
]
The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the
Spaniard
Gabriel de Castilla
, who reported seeing distant southern snow-capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of
South Georgia
, visited by the
English
merchant
Anthony de la Roche
in 1675. Although myths and speculation about a
Terra Australis
("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of
Antarctica
is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the
Russian expedition
of
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen
and
Mikhail Lazarev
on
Vostok
and
Mirny
.
The Australian
James Kerguelen Robinson
(1859?1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the
sealing
ship
Offley
in the
Gulf of Morbihan
(Royal Sound then), Kerguelen Island on 11 March 1859.
[43]
[44]
The first human born and raised on an Antarctic island was
Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen
born on 8 October 1913 in
Grytviken
, South Georgia.
[45]
Emilio Marcos Palma
(born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the
Esperanza Base
.
[46]
His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma's birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to
Esperanza Base
, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed
Argentine Antarctica
. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican.
The Antarctic region had no
indigenous population
when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient
scientific
and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen
research stations
maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000
[47]
tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the
Antarctic Peninsula
area (especially the
South Shetland Islands
) and
South Georgia Island
.
In December 2009, the growth of
tourism
, with consequences for both the ecology and the safety of the travellers in its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the
Antarctic Treaty
. The definitive results of the conference were presented at the Antarctic Treaty states' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010.
[48]
Time zones
[
edit
]
Because Antarctica surrounds the
South Pole
, it is theoretically located in all
time zones
. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on
territorial claims
or the time zone of a station's owner country or supply base.
[49]
List of offshore islands
[
edit
]
North of 60°S latitude
[
edit
]
South of 60°S latitude
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The word was originally pronounced without the first
/k/
, but the
spelling pronunciation
has become common and is often considered more correct. The pronunciation without the first k sound and the first t sound is however widespread and a typical phenomenon of English in many other similar words too.
[1]
The "c" was added to the spelling for etymological reasons and then began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.
[2]
[3]
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[
edit
]
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- ^
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]
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