Peninsula in South-western Europe
The
Iberian Peninsula
(
),
[a]
also known as
Iberia
,
[b]
is a
peninsula
in South-western
Europe
, defining the westernmost edge of
Eurasia
. It is divided between
Continental Portugal
and
Peninsular Spain
, comprising most of the region, as well as
Andorra
,
Gibraltar
, and a small part of
Southern France
(
French Cerdagne
). With an area of approximately 583,254 square kilometres (225,196 sq mi),
and a population of roughly 55 million,
[2]
it is the second-largest European peninsula by area, after the
Scandinavian Peninsula
.
Name
[
edit
]
Greek name
[
edit
]
The word
Iberia
is a noun adapted from the
Latin
word "Hiberia" originating in the
Ancient Greek
word ?βηρ?α (
Ib?ri?
), used by Greek geographers under the rule of the
Roman Empire
to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula.
[3]
At that time, the name did not describe a single geographical entity or a distinct population; the same name was used for the
Kingdom of Iberia
, natively known as
Kartli
in the
Caucasus
, the core region of what would later become the
Kingdom of Georgia
.
[4]
It was
Strabo
who first reported the delineation of "Iberia" from
Gaul
(
Keltik?
) by the
Pyrenees
[5]
and included the entire land mass southwest (he says "west") from there.
[6]
With the fall of the
Western Roman Empire
and the consolidation of
romanic languages
, the word "Iberia" continued the Roman word "Hiberia" and the Greek word "?βηρ?α".
The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the
Phoenicians
, by voyaging westward on the
Mediterranean
.
[7]
Hecataeus of Miletus
was the first known to use the term
Iberia
, which he wrote about
c.
500 BCE
.
[8]
Herodotus
of Halicarnassus says of the
Phocaeans
that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with [...] Iberia."
[9]
According to
Strabo
,
[10]
prior historians used
Iberia
to mean the country "this side of the ?βηρο?" (
Ib?ros
, the
Ebro
) as far north as the
Rhone
, but in his day they set the
Pyrenees
as the limit.
Polybius
respects that limit,
[11]
but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as
Gibraltar
, with the Atlantic side having no name. Elsewhere
[12]
he says that
Saguntum
is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia."
Roman names
[
edit
]
According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use
Hispania
and
Hiberia
(Greek:
Iberia
) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word
Hiberia
, similar to the Greek
Iberia
, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river
Hiberus
(now called
Ebro
or Ebre).
Hiber
(Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro.
[5]
[13]
The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet
Ennius
in 200 BCE.
[14]
[15]
[16]
Virgil
wrote
impacatos (H)iberos
("restless Iberi") in his
Georgics
.
[17]
The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late
Roman Republic
called the entire peninsula
Hispania
.
In Greek and Roman antiquity, the name
Hesperia
was used for both the Italian and Iberian Peninsula; in the latter case
Hesperia Ultima
(referring to its position in the far west) appears as form of disambiguation from the former among Roman writers.
Also since Roman antiquity, Jews gave the name
Sepharad
to the peninsula.
As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names
Hispania Citerior
and
Hispania Ulterior
for 'near' and 'far' Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three
Roman provinces
:
Hispania Baetica
,
Hispania Tarraconensis
, and
Hispania Lusitania
. Strabo says
[10]
that the Romans use
Hispania
and
Iberia
synonymously, distinguishing between the
near
northern and the
far
southern provinces. (The name
Iberia
was ambiguous, being also the name of the
Kingdom of Iberia
in the Caucasus.)
Whatever languages may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the
Vascones
, which was preserved as a
language isolate
by the barrier of the Pyrenees.
Modern name
[
edit
]
The modern phrase "Iberian Peninsula" was coined by the French geographer
Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent
on his 1823 work
"Guide du Voyageur en Espagne"
. Prior to that date, geographers had used the terms 'Spanish Peninsula' or 'Pyrenaean Peninsula'.
[20]
Etymology
[
edit
]
The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River
Ebro
(Ib?ros in
ancient Greek
and Ib?rus or Hib?rus in
Latin
). The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ib?ria was the country "this side of the Ib?rus" in Strabo.
Pliny
goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.
[21]
The river appears in the
Ebro Treaty
of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in
Appian
,
[22]
uses Ib?rus. With reference to this border,
Polybius
[23]
states that the "native name" is
Ib?r
, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin
-os
or
-us
termination.
The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "
Iberian
". Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern
Basque
, the word
ibar
[24]
means "valley" or "watered meadow", while
ibai
[24]
means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names.
Prehistory
[
edit
]
Palaeolithic
[
edit
]
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by members of the
Homo
genus for at least 1.2 million years as remains found in the sites in the
Atapuerca Mountains
demonstrate. Among these sites is the cave of
Gran Dolina
, where six
hominin
skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species
Homo erectus
,
Homo heidelbergensis
, or a new species called
Homo antecessor
. According to other authors, the archaeo-palaeontological records in
Sierra de Atapuerca
, inside the caves and in the open-air sites, have confirmed a continuous settlement from the Lower Pleistocene (Lower Paleolithic) to the Holocene (Bronze Age), with several species of hominids (
Homo antecessor
,
Homo heidelbergensis
,
Homo neanderthalensis
and
Homo sapiens
) exploiting the same territory.
According to these authors, in the surroundings of Sierra de Atapuerca, the archaeological consequence of the continuous territorial occupation of the same area from 1.3 Ma to the Bronze Age (2100-850 cal. BC) has been the deposition of hundreds of open-air sites, with campsites, flintknapping workshops and other sites with complementary economic activities.
In the Iberian Peninsula Oldowan stone tools (Mode 1) have been found at the following sites (caves and open-air sites): Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Granada), Barranco Leon (Orce, Granada), Sima del Elefante (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), Gran Dolina TD6 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) and in other open-air sites.
The archaeo-palaeontological records in
Sierra de Atapuerca
(Burgos, Spain) from Lower Paleolithic have provided Oldowan stone tools associated with
Homo antecessor
(Gran Dolina site, TD6 level, ca. 800,000 years BP)
Acheulean stone tools (Mode 2) have been found in the Middle Pleistocene caves and in open-air sites of the main valleys (i.e., Quaternary terraces of the rivers Ebro, Duero, Arlanzon, Arlanza, Pisuerga, Mino, Tormes, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, etc.)
The archaeo-palaeontological records in
Sierra de Atapuerca
(Burgos, Spain) from Lower Paleolithic have provided Acheulean tools associated with
Homo heidelbergensis
(ca. 450,000 years BP)
Mousterian stone tools (Mode 3) have been found in the Middle and Upper Pleistocene caves and in open-air sites of the main valleys.
The archaeo-palaeontological records in the
Sierra de Atapuerca
caves (Burgos, Spain) from Middle Paleolithic (i.e., Galeria de las Estatuas y Cueva Fantasma sites) have provided Mousterian stone tools associated with
Homo neanderthalensis
(ca. 250,000 to 30,000 years BP).
Around 200,000
BP
, during the
Lower Paleolithic
period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BP, during the
Middle Paleolithic
period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal
Mousterian
culture was established. Around 37,000 BP, during the
Upper Paleolithic
, the Neanderthal
Chatelperronian
cultural period began. Emanating from
Southern France
, this culture extended into the north of the peninsula. It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.
About 40,000 years ago,
anatomically modern humans
entered the Iberian Peninsula from across the Pyrenees.
Haplogroup R1b
is common in modern
Portuguese
and
Spanish
males. On the Iberian Peninsula, modern humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the
Aurignacian
,
Gravettian
,
Solutrean
and
Magdalenian
cultures, some of them characterized by the complex forms of the
art of the Upper Paleolithic
.
Neolithic
[
edit
]
The Iberian
Epipaleolithic
, ?also described as Mesolithic?, is divided into three stages from 9300 cal. BC to 5200 cal BC. The
Neolithic
began on the Iberian Peninsula in 5700/5600 cal. BC according to several sites in the Levant area of the Peninsula. On the Northern Iberian Plateau is present in the karst records and the open air sites from the last third of the VI millennium cal. BC.
During the
Neolithic expansion
, various
megalithic
cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula.
[29]
An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the
Cardium culture
, also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BCE. These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the
Iberian civilization
.
As is the case for most of the rest of Southern Europe, the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians are
Early European Farmers
who arrived during the Neolithic. The large predominance of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1b, common throughout
Western Europe
, is testimony to a considerable input from various waves of (predominantly male)
Western Steppe Herders
from the
Pontic?Caspian steppe
during the Bronze Age. Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover, with 100% of the paternal ancestry and 40% of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with steppe-related ancestry.
[30]
Chalcolithic
[
edit
]
In the
Chalcolithic
(
c.
3000 BCE), a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula's
first civilizations
and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the
Baltic
,
Middle East
and
North Africa
. Around 2800 ? 2700 BCE, the
Beaker culture
, which produced the
Maritime Bell Beaker
, probably originated in the vibrant copper-using communities of the
Tagus
estuary and spread from there to many parts of western Europe.
[31]
According to radiocarbon datings, the Pre-Bell Beaker
Chalcolithic
began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 3000 cal. BC and the Bell Beaker Chalcolithic appeared around 2500 cal. BC.
Bronze Age
[
edit
]
The Bronze Age began on the Iberian Peninsula in 2100 cal. BC according to radiocarbon datings of several key sites. According to the period sequence,
the Iberian Bronze Age is divided into three sub-periods or phases with different diagnostic markers (lithic tools, decorated ceramics and types of metal tools): Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age. The Early Bronze Age began on the Northern Iberian Plateau in 2100 cal. BC and the Late Bronze Age in 1350 cal. BC. In the three phases of the Iberian Bronze Age, different cultures emerged, which have been defined by regions with typical names: e.g.
El Argar
,
Las Motillas
,
Bronce Atlantico
,
Bronce Valenciano
,
Montelavar
,
Las Cogotas
and others.
Bronze Age
cultures developed beginning
c.
1800 BCE,
[32]
when the culture of
Los Millares
was followed by that of
El Argar
.
[33]
[34]
During the Early Bronze Age, southeastern Iberia saw the emergence of important settlements, a development that has compelled some archeologists to propose that these settlements indicate the advent of state-level social structures.
[35]
From this centre, bronze metalworking technology spread to other cultures like the
Bronze of Levante
,
South-Western Iberian Bronze
and
Las Cogotas
.
Preceded by the Chalcolithic sites of Los Millares, the
Argaric culture
flourished in southeastern Iberia in from 2200 BC to 1550 BC,
[36]
when depopulation of the area ensued along with disappearing of copper?bronze?arsenic metallurgy.
The most accepted model for El Argar has been that of an early state society, most particularly in terms of class division, exploitation, and coercion,
[38]
with agricultural production, maybe also human labour, controlled by the larger hilltop settlements,
and the elite using violence in practical and ideological terms to clamp down on the population.
Ecological degradation, landscape opening, fires, pastoralism, and maybe tree cutting for mining have been suggested as reasons for the collapse.
[41]
The culture of the
motillas
developed an early system of groundwater supply plants (the so-called
motillas
) in the upper
Guadiana
basin (in the southern
meseta
) in a context of extreme aridification in the area in the wake of the
4.2-kiloyear climatic event
, which roughly coincided with the transition from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age. Increased precipitation and recovery of the water table from about 1800 BC onward should have led to the forsaking of the
motillas
(which may have flooded) and the redefinition of the relation of the inhabitants of the territory with the environment.
[42]
Proto-history
[
edit
]
According to radiocarbon datings, the Iron Age began on the Iberian Peninsula in 850/800 cal. BC with the arrival of the Phoenicians, while on the Northern Iberian Plateau it will arrive a little later, in 800-750 cal. BC.
By the
Iron Age
, starting in the 8th century BCE, the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either
Pre-Celtic
or Celtic (such as the
Celtiberians
,
Gallaeci
,
Astures
,
Celtici
,
Lusitanians
and others), the cultures of the
Iberians
in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the
Aquitanian
in the western portion of the Pyrenees.
As early as the 12th century BCE, the
Phoenicians
, a
thalassocratic
civilization originally from the Eastern Mediterranean, began to explore the coastline of the peninsula, interacting with the metal-rich communities in the southwest of the peninsula (contemporarily known as the semi-mythical
Tartessos
).
Around 1100 BCE, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day
Cadiz
). Phoenicians established a permanent trading port in the Gadir colony
c.
800 BCE
in response to the increasing demand of silver from the
Assyrian Empire
.
The seafaring Phoenicians,
Greeks
and
Carthaginians
successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over several centuries. In the 8th century BCE, the first
Greek colonies
, such as Emporion (modern
Empuries
), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians.
Together with the presence of Phoenician and Greek epigraphy, several
paleohispanic scripts
developed in the Iberian Peninsula along the 1st millennium BCE. The development of a primordial paleohispanic script antecessor to the rest of paleohispanic scripts (originally supposed to be a non-redundant
semi-syllabary
) derived from the
Phoenician alphabet
and originated in Southwestern Iberia by the 7th century BCE has been tentatively proposed.
[46]
In the sixth century BCE, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day
Cartagena, Spain
).
History
[
edit
]
Roman rule
[
edit
]
In 218 BCE, during the
Second Punic War
against the Carthaginians, the first
Roman
troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula, known to them as
Hispania
. After 197, the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition (the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley) were divided by Romans into
Hispania Ulterior
and
Hispania Citerior
.
[47]
Local rebellions were quelled, with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hotspots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond.
The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered in.
Further wars of indigenous resistance, such as the
Celtiberian Wars
and the
Lusitanian War
, were fought in the 2nd century. Urban growth took place, and population progressively moved from
hillforts
to the plains.
[50]
An example of the interaction of
slaving
and
ecocide
, the aftermath of the conquest increased mining extractive processes in the southwest of the peninsula (which required a massive number of forced laborers, initially from Hispania and latter also from the
Gallic borderlands
and other locations of the Mediterranean), bringing in a far-reaching environmental outcome vis-a-vis long-term global pollution records, with levels of
atmospheric pollution
from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity having no match until the Industrial Revolution.
[51]
[52]
In addition to mineral extraction (of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world, with production of the likes of gold, silver, copper, lead, and
cinnabar
), Hispania also produced manufactured goods (
sigillata
pottery,
colourless glass
,
linen
garments) fish and fish sauce (
garum
), dry crops (such as
wheat
and, more importantly,
esparto
),
olive oil
, and
wine
.
[53]
The process of
Romanization
spurred on throughout the first century BC.
The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic, such as the
Sertorian War
or the
conflict between Caesar and Pompey
later in the century.
During their 600-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans introduced the Latin language that influenced many of the languages that exist today in the Iberian peninsula.
Pre-modern Iberia
[
edit
]
In the early fifth century,
Germanic peoples
occupied the peninsula, namely the
Suebi
, the
Vandals
(
Silingi
and
Hasdingi
) and their allies, the
Alans
. Only the kingdom of the Suebi (
Quadi
and
Marcomanni
) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the
Visigoths
, who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day
Braga
), in 584?585. They would also occupy the
province
of the
Byzantine Empire
(552?624) of
Spania
in the south of the peninsula
[
citation needed
]
. However,
Balearic Islands
remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest, which began in 703 CE and was completed in 902 CE.
[56]
[57]
In 711, a
Muslim army
conquered the
Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania
. Under
Tariq ibn Ziyad
, the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the
Umayyad conquest of Hispania
.
Al-Andalus
(
Arabic
:
???????
, tr.
al-?Andal?s
, possibly "Land of the Vandals"),
[58]
[59]
is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia. The Muslim conquerors were
Arabs
and
Berbers
; following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place,
(
muwalladum
or
Muladi
).
[62]
After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries, the majority of the population in Al-Andalus eventually converted to Islam.
The Muslims were referred to by the generic name
Moors
.
[64]
The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muladi), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers.
Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and the Syrians (second wave).
Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the
dhimmah
system
,
although Jews became very important in certain fields.
Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as
musta'arab
(
mozarabs
).
The slave population comprised the
?aq?liba
(literally meaning "slavs", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as
Sudanese
slaves.
The Umayyad rulers faced a major
Berber Revolt
in the early 740s; the uprising originally broke out in North Africa (Tangier) and later spread across the peninsula.
Following the
Abbasid
takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, the western province of al-Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756, ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals,
Abd al-Rahman I
.
Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the
Caliphate of Cordoba
. The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of
Abd-ar-Rahman III
and his successor
al-Hakam II
, becoming then, in the view of
Jaime Vicens Vives
, "the most powerful state in Europe".
Abd-ar-Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al-Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar,
waging war, as well as his successor, against the
Fatimid Empire
.
Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones:
Cordoba
reached a population of 100,000 by the 10th century,
Toledo
30,000 by the 11th century and
Seville
80,000 by the 12th century.
During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the
Kingdom of Castile
, the
Kingdom of Aragon
, the
Kingdom of Navarre
, the
Kingdom of Leon
or the
Kingdom of Portugal
, as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian
Marca Hispanica
. Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances.
[c]
The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the "
Reconquista
" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately "the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492").
The Caliphate of Cordoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the
Fitna of al-Andalus
) and collapsed in the early 11th century, spawning a series of ephemeral statelets, the
taifas
. Until the mid 11th century, most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias/Leon was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations; then, profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities,
Ferdinand I of Leon
seized Lamego and Viseu (1057?1058) and Coimbra (1064) away from the
Taifa of Badajoz
(at times at war with the
Taifa of Seville
);
[78]
Meanwhile, in the same year Coimbra was conquered, in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon
took Barbastro
from the Hudid
Taifa of Lerida
as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II. Most critically,
Alfonso VI of Leon-Castile
conquered Toledo and its
wider taifa
in 1085, in what it was seen as a critical event at the time, entailing also a huge territorial expansion, advancing from the
Sistema Central
to
La Mancha
.
In 1086, following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of Leon-Castile, the
Almoravids
, religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb, landed in the Iberian Peninsula, and, having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the
battle of Zalaca
, began to seize control of the remaining taifas.
The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part.
The
Almohads
, another North-African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar,
first entered the peninsula in 1146.
Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms.
The relatively novel concept of "frontier" (Sp:
frontera
), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands.
By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World.
During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and Leon, from
Alfonso V
and
Alfonso VI
(crowned
Hispaniae Imperator
) to
Alfonso X
and
Alfonso XI
tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology.
Despite the hegemonic ambitions of its rulers and the consolidation of the union of Castile and Leon after 1230, it should be pointed that, except for a brief period in the 1330s and 1340s, Castile tended to be nonetheless "essentially unstable" from a political standpoint until the late 15th century.
Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal.
Since the 13th century, the
Crown of Aragon
expanded overseas; led by
Catalans
, it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean, with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the
Balearics
,
Sicily
and
Sardinia
, and even conquering Naples in the mid-15th century.
Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming, according to
Virginia Rau
, the "great centre of Genoese trade" in the early 14th century.
The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from
Genoese
influence.
The
Nasrid Kingdom of Granada
, neighbouring the
Strait of Gibraltar
and founded upon a
vassalage
relationship with the Crown of Castile,
also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network, with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese.
Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the "crisis of the Strait", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle ("a kaleidoscope of alliances") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the
Marinid Sultanate
.
[95]
The conflict reached a climax in the 1340
Battle of Rio Salado
, when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender)
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman
made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula. The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean.
The
1348?1350 bubonic plague
devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation.
Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken.
The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms.
The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms. After the death of
Peter the Cruel of Castile
(reigned 1350?69), the
House of Trastamara
succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother,
Henry II
(reigned 1369?79). In the kingdom of Aragon, following the death without heirs of
John I
(reigned 1387?96) and
Martin I
(reigned 1396?1410), a prince of the House of Trastamara,
Ferdinand I
(reigned 1412?16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne.
[99]
The
Hundred Years' War
also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory.
After the accession of
Henry III
to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo. In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews,
[101]
[102]
[103]
[104]
[105]
or even as many as 100,000, according to
Jane Gerber
.
Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches. According to
Hasdai Crescas
, about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.
[107]
During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the
House of Aviz
,
conquering Ceuta
(1415) arriving at
Porto Santo
(1418),
Madeira
and the
Azores
, as well as establishing additional outposts along the North-African Atlantic coast.
In addition, already in the Early Modern Period, between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, the Hispanic Monarchy would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb.
During the Late Middle Ages, the
Jews
acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon.
Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with
Barcelona
(already in the 14th century),
Valencia
(particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent,
Palma de Mallorca
(since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples.
Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade.
Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of
Malaga
entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile.
By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525 million (Crown of Castile, 4.3 million; Portugal, 1.0 million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3 million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255 million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05 million).
For three decades in the 15th century, the
Hermandad de las Marismas
, the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the
Hanseatic League
, fought against the latter,
[
citation needed
]
an ally of England, a rival of Castile in political and economic terms.
Castile sought to claim the
Gulf of Biscay
as its own.
In 1419, the powerful Castilian navy
thoroughly defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle
.
In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the
Catholic Monarchs
in Castile and Aragon, and by
Manuel I
in Portugal.
The last Muslim stronghold,
Granada
, was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa.
[116]
Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the
fall of Granada
, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion?as many as 200,000 Jews were
expelled from Spain
.
[117]
[118]
[119]
[120]
Approximately 3,000,000 Muslims fled or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610.
[121]
Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain.
[122]
The Jews were also
expelled from Sicily
and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left.
[123]
In 1497, King
Manuel I of Portugal
forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave. That same year he
expelled
all Muslims that were not slaves,
[124]
and in 1502 the
Catholic Monarchs
followed suit, imposing the choice of
conversion to Christianity
or exile and loss of property. Many Jews and Muslims fled to
North Africa
and the
Ottoman Empire
, while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as
Marranos
and
Moriscos
(after the old term
Moors
).
[125]
However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately
forcibly expelled
from Spain in the early 17th century. From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.
[126]
[127]
A series of case studies by the
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs
at
Harvard University
demonstrated that the change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century was one of the few cases of avoidance of the
Thucydides Trap
.
[128]
Modern Iberia
[
edit
]
Challenging the conventions about the advent of modernity,
Immanuel Wallerstein
pushed back the origins of the capitalist modernity to the Iberian expansion of the 15th century.
During the 16th century Spain created a vast empire in the Americas, with a state monopoly in
Seville
becoming the center of the ensuing transatlantic trade, based on
bullion
.
Iberian imperialism, starting by the Portuguese establishment of routes to Asia and the posterior transatlantic trade with the New World by Spaniards and Portuguese (along Dutch, English and French), precipitated the economic decline of the
Italian Peninsula
.
The 16th century was one of population growth with increased pressure over resources;
in the case of the Iberian Peninsula a part of the population moved to the Americas meanwhile Jews and Moriscos were banished, relocating to other places in the Mediterranean Basin.
Most of the Moriscos remained in Spain after the
Morisco revolt
in Las Alpujarras during the mid-16th century, but roughly 300,000 of them
were expelled from the country
in 1609?1614, and emigrated
en masse
to North Africa.
In 1580, after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King
Sebastian
, Portugal became a dynastic composite entity of the Hapsburg Monarchy; thus, the whole peninsula was united politically during the period known as the
Iberian Union
(1580?1640). During the reign of
Philip II of Spain
(I of Portugal), the Councils of Portugal, Italy, Flanders and Burgundy were added to the group of counselling institutions of the
Hispanic Monarchy
, to which the Councils of Castile, Aragon, Indies, Chamber of Castile, Inquisition, Orders, and Crusade already belonged, defining the organization of the Royal court that underpinned the
Polysynodial System
through which the empire operated.
During the Iberian union, the "first great wave" of the
transatlantic slave trade
happened, according to
Enriqueta Vila Villar
, as new markets opened because of the unification gave thrust to the slave trade.
By 1600, the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11.4%, while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14.1%, which were both above the 7.6% European average of the time (edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula).
Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms. Castile, extending across a 60% of the territory of the peninsula and having 80% of the population was a rather urbanised country, yet with a widespread distribution of cities.
Meanwhile, the urban population in the
Crown of Aragon
was highly concentrated in a handful of cities:
Zaragoza
(
Kingdom of Aragon
),
Barcelona
(
Principality of Catalonia
), and, to a lesser extent in the
Kingdom of Valencia
, in
Valencia
,
Alicante
and
Orihuela
.
The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital,
Lisbon
(which greatly increased its population during the 16th century, from 56,000 to 60,000 inhabitants by 1527, to roughly 120,000 by the third quarter of the century) with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade,
[140]
followed at great distance by
Porto
and
Evora
(both roughly accounting for 12,500 inhabitants).
[141]
Throughout most of the 16th century, both Lisbon and
Seville
were among the Western Europe's largest and most dynamic cities.
The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies, seen as a time of recession, crisis or even decline,
the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe.
A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period (with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital,
Madrid
), with only
New Castile
resisting recession in the interior.
Regarding the Atlantic facade of Castile, aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe, inter-regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent.
In Aragon, suffering from similar problems than Castile, the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession. Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported.
However, the crisis was uneven (affecting longer the centre of the peninsula), as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth.
The aftermath of the intermittent
1640?1668 Portuguese Restoration War
brought the
House of Braganza
as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world (bar
Ceuta
), putting an end to the Iberian Union.
Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, this process was, concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population, relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula, when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial
rural flight
patterns.
Geography and geology
[
edit
]
The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas?the Iberian,
Italian
, and
Balkan
.
It is bordered on the southeast and east by the
Mediterranean Sea
, and on the north, west, and southwest by the
Atlantic Ocean
. The
Pyrenees
mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip, located in
Tarifa
is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the
Strait of Gibraltar
and the
Mediterranean Sea
.
The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583,254 km
2
and has very contrasting and uneven relief.
The mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula are mainly distributed from west to east, and in some cases reach altitudes of approximately 3000
mamsl
, resulting in the region having the second highest mean altitude (637 mamsl) in
Western Europe
.
The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at
Punta de Tarifa
to the northernmost extremity at
Punta de Estaca de Bares
over a distance between lines of latitude of about 865 km (537 mi) based on a
degree length
of 111 km (69 mi) per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at
Cabo da Roca
to the easternmost extremity at
Cap de Creus
over a distance between lines of longitude at
40° N latitude
of about 1,155 km (718 mi) based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km (56 mi) for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical
quadrangle
was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer
Strabo
.
[150]
About three quarters of that rough octagon is the
Meseta Central
, a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude.
[151]
It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered
Getafe
just south of
Madrid
). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.
Coastline
[
edit
]
The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is 3,313 km (2,059 mi), 1,660 km (1,030 mi) on the Mediterranean side and 1,653 km (1,027 mi) on the Atlantic side.
[152]
The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of 115?120 m (377?394 ft) lower than today at the
Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years
BP
.
[153]
The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated 700 km (430 mi) length of Atlantic shelf is only 10?65 km (6.2?40.4 mi) wide. At the 500 m (1,600 ft)
isobath
, on the edge, the shelf drops off to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).
[154]
The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the
Bay of Biscay
on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at 4,800 m (15,700 ft) on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama
seamounts
, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by
Nazare Canyon
, which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.
[
citation needed
]
Rivers
[
edit
]
The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the
Ebro
,
Douro
,
Tagus
,
Guadiana
and
Guadalquivir
.
[155]
[156]
All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.
The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.
Mountains
[
edit
]
The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely
mountainous
.
[157]
The major mountain systems are:
- The
Pyrenees
and their foothills, the
Pre-Pyrenees
, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel.
Aneto
in the
Maladeta
massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
- The
Cantabrian Mountains
along the northern coast with the massive
Picos de Europa
.
Torre de Cerredo
, at 2,648 m, is the highest point
- The
Galicia/Tras-os-Montes Massif
in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks.
[158]
Pena Trevinca
, at 2,127 m, is the highest point
- The
Sistema Iberico
, a complex system at the heart of the peninsula, in its central/eastern region. It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers.
Moncayo
, at 2,313 m, is the highest point
- The
Sistema Central
, dividing the
Iberian Plateau
into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of
Continental Portugal
(1,993 m) is located in the
Serra da Estrela
).
Pico Almanzor
in the
Sierra de Gredos
is the highest point, at 2,592 m
- The
Montes de Toledo
, which also stretches into Portugal from the
La Mancha
natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is
La Villuerca
in the
Sierra de Villuercas
,
Extremadura
- The
Sierra Morena
, which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m,
Banuela
is the highest point
- The
Baetic System
, which stretches between
Cadiz
and Gibraltar and northeast towards
Alicante Province
. It is divided into three subsystems:
- Prebaetic System
, which begins west of the
Sierra Sur de Jaen
, reaching the
Mediterranean Sea
shores in
Alicante Province
.
La Sagra
is the highest point at 2,382 m.
- Subbaetic System
, which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from
Cape Trafalgar
in
Cadiz Province
across Andalusia to the
Region of Murcia
.
[159]
The highest point, at 2,027 m (6,650 ft), is Pena de la Cruz in
Sierra Arana
.
- Penibaetic System
, located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high
Mulhacen
in the
Sierra Nevada
.
[160]
Geology
[
edit
]
The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the
Ediacaran
to the
Recent
, and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class
mineral deposits
can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a
Hercynian
cratonic
block known as the
Iberian Massif
. On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the
Baetic System
. These twofold chains are part of the
Alpine belt
. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the
magma
-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the
Sistema Iberico
and the
Catalan Mediterranean System
.
[
citation needed
]
The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest
lithium
deposits belts in Europe (an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent), scattered along the Iberian Massif's
Central Iberian Zone
[
es
]
and
Galicia Tras-Os-Montes Zone
[
es
]
.
[161]
Also in the Iberian Massif, and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe, the peninsula hosts some
uranium
deposits, largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit.
The
Iberian Pyrite Belt
, located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula, ranks among the most important
volcanogenic
massive sulphide districts on Earth, and it has been exploited for millennia.
[163]
Climate
[
edit
]
The Iberian Peninsula's location and topography, as well as the effects of large
atmospheric circulation
patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation (roughly from 2,000 mm to 300 mm).
The Iberian Peninsula has three dominant climate types. One of these is the
oceanic climate
seen in the northeast in which precipitation has barely any difference between winter and summer. However, most of Portugal and Spain have a
Mediterranean climate
; the
warm-summer Mediterranean climate
and the
hot-summer Mediterranean climate
, with various differences in precipitation and temperature depending on latitude and position versus the sea, this applies greatly to the Portuguese and Galician Atlantic coasts where, due to
upwelling
/
downwelling
phenomena average temperatures in summer can vary through as much as 10 °C (18 °F) in only a few kilometers (e.g.
Peniche
vs
Santarem
) There are also more localized
steppe climates
in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental Mediterranean climate. In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in
Sierra Nevada
and areas with extremely low precipitation and
desert climates
or
semi-desert climates
such as the
Almeria
area,
Murcia
area and southern
Alicante
area.
[165]
In the southwestern interior of the Iberian Peninsula the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with
Cordoba
averaging around 37 °C (99 °F) in July.
[166]
The Spanish Mediterranean coast usually averages around 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. In sharp contrast
A Coruna
at the northern tip of
Galicia
has a summer daytime high average at just below 23 °C (73 °F).
[167]
This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline. Winters in the Peninsula are for the most part, mild, although frosts are common in higher altitude areas of central Spain. The warmest winter nights are usually found in
downwelling
favourable areas of the west coast, such as on capes. Precipitation varies greatly between regions on the Peninsula, in December for example the northern west coast averages above 200 mm (7.9 in) whereas the southeast can average below 30 mm (1.2 in).
Insolation
can vary from just 1,600 hours in the
Bilbao
area, to above 3,000 hours in the
Algarve
and
Gulf of Cadiz
.
Political divisions
[
edit
]
The current political configuration of the Iberian Peninsula comprises the bulk of
Portugal
and
Spain
, the whole
landlocked microstate
of
Andorra
, a small part of the
French department
of
Pyrenees-Orientales
(
French Cerdagne
), and the
British Overseas Territory
of
Gibraltar
.
French Cerdagne is on the south side of the
Pyrenees
mountain range, which runs along the border between France and Spain.
[169]
[170]
For example, the
Segre
river, which runs west and then south to meet the
Ebro
, has its source on the
French
side. The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula, although the French coastline curves away from the rest of Europe north of the range, which is the reason why
Perpignan
, which is also known as the capital of
Northern Catalonia
, is often considered as the entrance to the Iberian Peninsula.
Regarding Portugal and Spain, this chiefly excludes the
Macaronesian
archipelagos (the
Azores
and
Madeira
of Portugal, and the
Canary Islands
of Spain), the
Balearic Islands
(Spain), and the
Spanish overseas territories
in
North Africa
(most conspicuously the cities of
Ceuta
and
Melilla
, as well as unpopulated islets and rocks).
The countries and territories on the Iberian Peninsula:
Arms
|
Flag
|
Country
/
Territory
|
Capital
|
Area
(mainland)
|
Population
(mainland)
|
% of area
|
|
|
Andorra
|
Andorra la Vella
|
468 km
2
(181 sq mi)
|
84,082
|
0.1
|
|
|
French Cerdagne
(
France
)
|
Font-Romeu-Odeillo-Via
|
539 km
2
(208 sq mi)
|
12,035
|
0.1
|
|
|
Gibraltar
(
United Kingdom
)
|
Gibraltar
|
7 km
2
(2.7 sq mi)
|
33,691
|
0.0
|
|
|
Portugal
(
mainland
)
|
Lisbon
|
89,015 km
2
(34,369 sq mi)
|
9,974,165
[171]
|
15.3
|
|
|
Spain
(
mainland
)
|
Madrid
|
493,515 km
2
(190,547 sq mi)
|
ca.
43,731,572
[172]
|
84.5
|
Total
|
583,544 km
2
(225,308 sq mi)
|
ca.
53,835,545
|
100
|
Cities
[
edit
]
The Iberian city network is dominated by three international metropolises (
Barcelona
,
Lisbon
, and
Madrid
) and four regional metropolises (
Bilbao
,
Porto
,
Seville
, and
Valencia
).
The relatively weak integration of the network favours a competitive approach vis-a-vis the inter-relation between the different centres.
Among these metropolises, Madrid stands out within the global urban hierarchy in terms of its status as a major service centre and enjoys the greatest degree of connectivity.
Major metropolitan regions
[
edit
]
According to
Eurostat
(2019),
[175]
the metropolitan regions with a population over one million are listed as follows:
Metropolitan region
|
State
|
Population (2019)
|
Madrid
|
Spain
|
6,641,649
|
Barcelona
|
Spain
|
5,575,204
|
Lisbon
|
Portugal
|
3,035,332
|
Valencia
|
Spain
|
2,540,588
|
Seville
|
Spain
|
1,949,640
|
Alicante-Elche-Elda
|
Spain
|
1,862,780
|
Porto
|
Portugal
|
1,722,374
|
Malaga-Marbella
|
Spain
|
1,660,985
|
Murcia-Cartagena
|
Spain
|
1,487,663
|
Cadiz
|
Spain
|
1,249,739
|
Bilbao
|
Spain
|
1,137,191
|
Oviedo-Gijon
|
Spain
|
1,022,205
|
Ecology
[
edit
]
Forests
[
edit
]
The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct
ecosystems
. Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.
While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.
The endangered
Iberian lynx
(
Lynx pardinus
) is a symbol of the Iberian mediterranean forest and of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula altogether.
[176]
A new
Podarcis
lizard species,
Podarcis virescens
, was accepted as a species by the Taxonomic Committee of the
Societas Europaea Herpetologica
in 2020. This lizard is native to the Iberian Peninsula and found near rivers in the region.
East Atlantic flyway
[
edit
]
The Iberian Peninsula is an important stopover on the East Atlantic
flyway
for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example,
curlew sandpipers
rest in the region of the
Bay of Cadiz
.
[177]
In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In
Galicia
are
Ria de Arousa
(a home of
grey plover
), Ria de
Ortigueira
, Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe. In Portugal, the
Aveiro Lagoon
hosts
Recurvirostra avosetta
, the
common ringed plover
,
grey plover
and
little stint
.
Ribatejo Province
on the
Tagus
supports
Recurvirostra arosetta
, grey plover,
dunlin
,
bar-tailed godwit
and
common redshank
. In the
Sado Estuary
are
dunlin
,
Eurasian curlew
, grey plover and
common redshank
. The
Algarve
hosts
red knot
,
common greenshank
and
turnstone
. The
Guadalquivir Marshes
region of
Andalusia
and the Salinas de
Cadiz
are especially rich in wintering wading birds:
Kentish plover
, common ringed plover,
sanderling
, and
black-tailed godwit
in addition to the others. And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above.
[178]
Languages
[
edit
]
With the sole exception of
Basque
, which is of
unknown origin
,
[179]
all modern Iberian languages descend from
Vulgar Latin
and belong to the
Western Romance languages
.
[180]
Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Basque is the only
non-Indo-European surviving language
in Iberia and Western Europe.
[181]
In modern times,
Spanish
(the official language of Spain, spoken by the entire 45 million population in the country, the native language of about 36 million in Europe),
[182]
Portuguese
(the official language of Portugal, with a population over 10 million),
Catalan
(over 7 million speakers in Europe, 3.4 million with Catalan as first language),
[183]
Galician
(understood by the 93% of the 2.8 million Galician population)
[183]
and
Basque
(cf. around 1 million speakers)
[184]
are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming
global languages
.
Other minority romance languages with some degree of recognition include the several varieties of
Astur-leonese
, collectively amounting to about 0.6 million speakers,
[185]
and the
Aragonese
(barely spoken by the 8% of the 130,000 people inhabiting the
Alto Aragon
).
[186]
English
is the official language of Gibraltar.
Llanito
is a unique language in the territory, an amalgamation of mostly English and Spanish.
[187]
In Spain, only 54.3% could speak a foreign language, below that of the EU-28 average. Portugal meanwhile achieved 69%, above the EU average, but still below the EU median. Spain ranks 25th out of 33 European countries in the English Proficiency Index.
[188]
Transportation
[
edit
]
Both Spain and Portugal have traditionally used a non-standard rail gauge (the 1,668 mm
Iberian gauge
) since the construction of the first railroads in the 19th century. Spain has progressively introduced the 1,435 mm
standard gauge
in its new high-speed rail network (one of the most extensive in the world),
inaugurated in 1992 with the
Madrid?Seville line
, followed to name a few by the
Madrid?Barcelona
(2008),
Madrid?Valencia
(2010), an Alicante branch of the latter (2013) and the connection to France of the Barcelona line.
Portugal however suspended all the high-speed rail projects in the wake of the
2008 financial crisis
, putting an end for the time being to the possibility of a high-speed rail connection between Lisbon, Porto and Madrid.
Handicapped by a mountainous range (the
Pyrenees
) hindering the connection to the rest of Europe, Spain (and subsidiarily Portugal) only has two meaningful rail connections to France able for freight transport, located at both ends of the mountain range.
An international rail line across the Central Pyrenees linking
Zaragoza
and the French city of
Pau
through a tunnel existed in the past; however, an accident in the French part destroyed a stretch of the railroad in 1970 and the
Canfranc Station
has been a
cul-de-sac
since then.
[193]
There are four points connecting the Portuguese and Spanish rail networks:
Valenca do Minho
?
Tui
,
Vilar Formoso
?
Fuentes de Onoro
,
Marvao-Beira
?
Valencia de Alcantara
and
Elvas
?
Badajoz
.
The prospect of the development (as part of a European-wide effort) of the Central, Mediterranean and Atlantic rail corridors is expected to be a way to improve the competitiveness of the ports of
Tarragona
,
Valencia
,
Sagunto
,
Bilbao
,
Santander
,
Sines
and
Algeciras
vis-a-vis the rest of Europe and the World.
In 1980, Morocco and Spain started a joint study on the feasibility of a fixed link (tunnel or bridge) across the
Strait of Gibraltar
, possibly through a connection of
Punta Paloma
[
es
]
with
Cape Malabata
.
Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.
[197]
A transit point for many submarine cables, the
Fibre-optic Link Around the Globe
,
Europe India Gateway
, and the
SEA-ME-WE 3
feature landing stations in the Iberian Peninsula.
[198]
The
West Africa Cable System
,
Main One
,
SAT-3/WASC
,
Africa Coast to Europe
also land in Portugal.
[198]
MAREA
, a high capacity communication transatlantic cable, connects the north of the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to North America (Virginia), whereas
Grace Hopper
is an upcoming cable connecting the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to the UK and the US intended to be operative by 2022
[199]
and
EllaLink
is an upcoming high-capacity communication cable expected to connect the Peninsula (Sines) to South America and the mammoth
2Africa project
intends to connect the peninsula to the United Kingdom, Europe and Africa (via Portugal and Barcelona) by 2023?24.
[200]
[201]
Two gas pipelines: the
Pedro Duran Farell pipeline
and (more recently) the
Medgaz
(from, respectively, Morocco and Algeria) link the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula, providing Spain with Algerian natural gas.
[203]
However the contract for the first pipeline expires on 31 October 2021 and?amidst a tense climate of
Algerian?Moroccan relations
?there are no plans to renew it.
[204]
Economy
[
edit
]
The official currency across Iberia is the
Euro
, with the exception of Gibraltar, which uses the
Gibraltar Pound
(at parity with
Sterling
).
[187]
Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing. Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna and anchovies. Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains. Commodities mined include: iron, gold, coal, lead, silver, zinc, and salt.
Regarding their role in the global economy, both the microstate of
Andorra
and the British Overseas Territory of
Gibraltar
have been described as
tax havens
.
The Galician region of Spain, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, became one of the biggest entry points of
cocaine
in Europe, on a par with the Dutch ports.
[206]
Hashish
is smuggled from
Morocco
via the
Strait of Gibraltar
.
[206]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
In the local languages:
- ^
In the local languages:
- Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian, Extremaduran and Galician:
Iberia
- Portuguese and Mirandese:
Iberia
- Catalan and Occitan:
Iberia
- French:
Iberie
[ibe?i]
- Basque:
Iberia
[iβe?ia]
- ^
Christian forces were usually better armoured than their Muslim counterparts, with noble and non-noble
milites
and
cavallers
wearing
mail
hauberks
, separate
mail coifs
and metal helmets, and armed with
maces
, cavalry axes, sword and lances.
[76]
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