?????? ??????? ??????
??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ??
????
?? 1978 ??? 1987 ??? ??????
?????
?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? 1978 ???? ??????
???? ???????
??? ????? ?? ????? ?? 1969? ?????? ?? ??????
????? ??????? ????????
??? ???? ???? ?? 1968?
[6]
???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? 1978? 1979? 1980?1981 ?1983?1987? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???
??????? ????????
? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? 1978? 1983 ?1986.
????? ??????? ????? ??? ?? 1978? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? (
???????
) ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ????????
[7]
??? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? 1986? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????
[8]
??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ????
??? ????????
? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????.
????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???
???? ????
? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ????
????????? ???????? ?????????
1935? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ????? ????????.
[6]
??? 1972 ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????: ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ???
??????????
? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???
???? ????
? ????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??
??????? ??????
.
[9]
????? ???????
[
???
]
???????? ??????? ????????
[
???
]
???? ??? ?????? ???????? ??
????
??? ????? ??????? ???
????????
?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???
???????
??????/ ?????? ???? ?? ???? (?????) ??
???
??????? ????? ??????? ??
??????
. ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ?????/ ?????? ?????? (1835 ? 1858?) ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? ????? ??? ??? ?????. ????? ??? ???????
???? ?????? ???????
? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? (1874 ? 1898?)
??? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????
???? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????
.
???? ???? ????????? ?? ????? 1960?? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ≪
??????? ????????
≫? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ≪??????≫ ???? ???? ??????.
???? ????
[
???
]
???? ????
?????? ?????? ??????
???? ????
Aozou
?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????
????
??? ??? ?????? ??
?????
? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??? 100 ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? (?? ??? 50 ??? 90 ????) ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? 80 ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?????
??????
? ?????? ?
??????????
?????????
.
?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???????. ????? ??????
???? ???????
?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????
???? ????????? ?????????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????
????????
? ???? ??? ???
?????? ?????????
? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??????? (?? ??? ????????) ?????? (?? ??? ???? ???????
???? ?????
)? ?????
??????? ????????-?????
? ????? ??? ??????? (?????? ??????? ??????)
??????
(?????? ??????? ?????) ?? ???? ??
7 ?????
1935?
? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????. ??? ?????
??????? ??????? ????????
??? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ?????
???????? ????????
? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?≪???????≫ ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? 1972? ??? ≪???????≫ ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????≪????? ????? ??????≫? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ≪???????≫? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????.
???? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? 1972?? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ????. ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???????. ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????. ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ≪
????
≫ ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? 1976.
???? ?????? ??? ?????
[
???
]
??? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ????
???? ???????
??? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? 1969?. ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??? 1971?. ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? (????????) ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????. ???? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? 1970? ??? 1990? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???????.
???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??
????????
????????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????????.
?????? ????
[
???
]
??????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????
????? ??????? ????????
???? ???????? ???? ?? 52% ????. ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? 30% ?? ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ???????.
?????? ???? ???
11 ?????
1960
???? ??? ???? ??? ??
?????? ?????????
(????? ?? ???? ??????)? ??????? ???
1918
. ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??? 13 ???? (????) 1975 ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???
???? ????????
? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???????
?????? ?????
? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? 1975 ??? ??? ?????. ?????? ????? ? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ???? ??? ???
15 ????
1975
?29 ?????
1979
???? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????
???? ????
????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? 1978 ??????? ??????? ???
1978
? ????
???? ????
?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ≪???? ?????? ???????≫.
???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????
???? ????
??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????.
??? ???? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????
?????? ????????
???? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???????. ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????
???????
??????
?????? ???
????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??????
??????? ??????
(??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???
1979
) ??? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ???????.
?? ?????
1979?
?? ??
?????
-
??????
????? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ≪????? ?????? ??????? ??????????≫? ???? ???? ≪
?????? ?????
≫ ????? ?????? ?≪
??? ?????? ??????
≫ ????? ???????
????? ????
????? ?????? ??????? ?≪???? ????≫ ????? ????????? ?≪??? ????≫ ????? ?????. ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? (?????? ?????) ???? ???????.
???? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?????
????? ????
?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??
???? ????
??? ???
???? ????
????? ?????? ?? ?????
?????? ?????
???
1979
? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ≪?????? ?????≫? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?≪
?????? ?????
≫ ?? 15 ????? ?? ??? 1980?. ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ???
???? ????
?≪?????≫ ?? ????????. ?????? ≪?????≫? ??? ?????? ??? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ≪?????? ?????≫ ?????? ??? ≪????????≫ ??
16 ??????
1980?
? ???? ≪????≫ ??????? ??? ?????????
???
6 ?????
?? ??? 1981?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ?????. ???? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ≪
????? ?????? ?????????
≫ ?≪?????≫. ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ????.
?? ??? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????
????? ???? ?????
? ???? ??? ?? ?????
????
????????
?? ?????? ?? 7 ?
16 ????
1979
???? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???
???? ????
???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????.
???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? . ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ≪????≫? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???????? -????????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ≪????????≫ ?? 7 ????? ?? ??? 1982?? ???????? ???? ≪?????≫ ????? ≪????≫ ????? ?????.
????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? . ???? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? - ??????? ?????? - ??? ???????? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ???????? .??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????
?????? ?????
?? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????
??? ?????
???????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????????. ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????
?????? ?????
????? ???? ??? 16 ?????? ????. ??? ??? 1986 ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??
??????
??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????. ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ????.
??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ????
???? ????
???? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???
????? ???? ??????
??????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????.
????? ????? ????????
[
???
]
????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ???????
????? ????
?? ≪
??????
≫ ????? ????????
????
. ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??
3 ??????
1988?
??? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????. ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??????
????? ????? ???????
?? ?????? 1994 ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????.
??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? MPS ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ?? 10 ??????
1990
???????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???
????????
?????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ????? (????????? ?? ????) ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????
? ??? ???? ??????
???? ????
??
30 ??????
1990?
? ????? ??????
????? ???? ????
????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? 1990?.
???? ????? ????? ??? ????
????? ???? ????
????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????
???? ?????
[
???
]
???????
[
???
]
- ????? ???????
(1998).
Roots of Violence: A History of War in Chad
.
???????
.
ISBN
:
90-5699-582-0
.
- Brandily, Monique (?????? 1984).
"Le Tchad face nord 1978-1979"
(PDF)
.
Politique Africaine
?. 16: 45?65. ????? ??
?????
(PDF)
?? 2016-03-03
. ???? ???? ??????
2009-06-25
.
- Brecher, Michael & Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (1997).
A Study in Crisis
. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN
:
0-4721-0806-9
.
{{
??????? ?????
}}
: ????? ?????????: ????? ??????: ????? ???????? (
link
)
- Buijtenhuijs, Robert (?????? 1984).
"Le FROLINAT a l'epreuve du pouvoir: L'echec d'une revolution Africaine"
(PDF)
.
Politique Africaine
?. 16: 15?29. ????? ??
?????
(PDF)
?? 2016-03-03
. ???? ???? ??????
2009-06-25
.
- Buijtenhuijs, Robert (???? 1981).
"Guerre de guerilla et revolution en Afrique noire : les lecons du Tchad"
(PDF)
.
Politique Africaine
?. 1: 23?33. ????? ??
?????
(PDF)
?? 2018-09-21
. ???? ???? ??????
2009-06-25
.
- Brian Ferguson, R. (2002).
State, Identity and Violence:Political Disintegration in the Post-Cold War World
. Routledge.
ISBN
:
0-4152-7412-5
.
- Clayton, Anthony (1998).
Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa Since 1950
. Routledge.
ISBN
:
1-8572-8525-5
.
- de Lespinois, Jerome (????? 2005).
"L'emploi de la force aerienne au Tchad (1967?1987)"
(PDF)
.
Penser les Ailes francaises
?. 6: 65?74. ????? ??
?????
(PDF)
?? 2012-02-05
. ???? ???? ??????
2009-06-25
.
- Gerard, Alain (?????? 1984).
"Nimeiry face aux crises tchadiennes"
(PDF)
.
Politique Africaine
?. 16: 118?124. ????? ??
?????
(PDF)
?? 2016-05-09
. ???? ???? ??????
2009-06-25
.
- Macedo, Stephen (2003).
Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law
. University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN
:
0-8122-3736-6
.
- Mays, Terry M. (2002).
Africa's First Peacekeeping operation: The OAU in Chad
. Greenwood.
ISBN
:
978-0-275-97606-4
.
- Metz, Helen Chapin (2004).
Libya
.
???? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????
.
ISBN
:
1-4191-3012-9
. ????? ??
?????
?? 2015-03-16.
- Mouric, N. (?????? 1984).
"La politique tchadienne de la France sous Valery Giscard d'Estaing"
(PDF)
.
Politique Africaine
?. 16: 86?101. ????? ??
?????
(PDF)
?? 2016-03-03
. ???? ???? ??????
2009-06-25
.
- Nolutshungu, Sam C.
[???? ????]
(1995).
Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad
. University of Virginia Press.
ISBN
:
0-8139-1628-3
.
{{
??????? ?????
}}
: ????? ?????????: ????? ?????: ????? ???????? (
link
) ????? ?????????: ????? ??????: ????? ???????? (
link
) ????? ?????????: ?????? ????? ????? (
link
)
- ????? ??. ?????
(2002).
Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948?1991
.
University of Nebraska Press
.
ISBN
:
0-8032-3733-2
. ????? ??
?????
?? 2022-12-04.
- Simons, Geoffrey Leslie (1993).
Libya: The Struggle for Survival
. Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN
:
978-0312089979
. ????? ??
?????
?? 2022-05-25.
- Simons, Geoff (2004).
Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie
. I.B. Tauris.
ISBN
:
1-8606-4988-2
. ????? ??
?????
?? 2021-10-16.
- Simpson, Howard R. (1999).
The Paratroopers of the French Foreign Legion: From Vietnam to Bosnia
. Brassey's.
ISBN
:
1-5748-8226-0
.
- Wright, John L. (1989).
Libya, Chad and the Central Sahara
. C. Hurst.
ISBN
:
1-85065-050-0
.
- Libya-Sudan-Chad Triangle: Dilemma for United States Policy
. US GPO. 1981.
??????
[
???
]
- ^
?
?
?
Geoffrey Leslie Simons,
Libya and the West: from independence to Lockerbie
, Centre for Libyan Studies (Oxford, England). Pg. 57
- ^
"??? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????... ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? - ????22"
. ????? ??
?????
?? 2018-12-01.
- ^
Talhami? Ghada Hashem (30 ?????? 2018).
"Palestinian Refugees: Pawns to Political Actors"
. Nova Publishers. ????? ??
?????
?? 2018-12-01.
- ^
Globalsecurity.org, Libyan Intervention in Chad, 1980-Mid-1987
???? ??????
01 ????? 2017 ??? ????
??? ??? ????
.
- ^
Geoffrey Leslie Simons,
Libya and the West: from independence to Lockerbie
, Centre for Libyan Studies (Oxford, England). Pg. 57?58
- ^
?
?
K. Pollack,
Arabs at War
, p. 375
- ^
K. Pollack, p. 376
- ^
S. Nolutshungu,
Limits of Anarchy
, p. 230
- ^
M. Azevedo,
Roots of Violence
, p. 151
????? ??????
[
???
]
|
|---|
|
| ??????????
| |
|---|
| ?????????
| |
|---|
| ????????
| |
|---|
| ?????????
| |
|---|
| ??????????
| |
|---|
| ?????????
| |
|---|
| ?????? ?????
| |
|---|
???????
????????
| |
|---|
| ??????
| |
|---|
| ?????
| |
|---|
| ??????
| |
|---|
| ???? ?????
| |
|---|
|
[[?????::????? ?? ????? 20]]
[[?????::????? ?? ??? 1970]]