한국   대만   중국   일본 
??????????? - ????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ????

???????????

????????????? ????
?????????? : 41°00′49″N 28°57′18″E  /  41.01361°N 28.95500°E  / 41.01361; 28.95500
??????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???????.
( ??????????? ????????? ????????????????)
???????????
?stanbul
??????? ????????
??????????? ??????? ????????
விளக்கத்தைப் பார்க்கவும்
?????????? ???????????:
?????????????? ????????? ??????????
??????? ???? ???? ??????; ??????? ????????? ????????;
?????????? ???????;
?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????;
??????? ???????? ????? ??????????
???? ????????
????? ??????
??????? ???????????
 - ??????????? ??.??. 660
 -  ?????????????????? ??.??. 330
 - ??????????? 1930 (????????????????)
??????????? 39
????
 ? ????? ????? ???????? (?.??.??)
????????
 ? ???????
[a]
5,343 km 2 (2,063 sq mi)
??????????
  (2013)
 ? ??????? ???????? 1,41,60,467
 ? ??????? ???????????? 1 ????, ?????? 5 ????
 ? ???????? 2,725/km 2 (7,060/sq mi)
??????? ???????????????(???)
( ??????????? : ?????????????(????) )
??? ????? ????+2 ( EET )
 ? ???? ( ????? ) ????+3 ( EEST )
?????? ????????
34000 ??? ??????? 34850 ???
Area code(s) 0212 (?????????? ??????)
0216 (?????? ??????) ???????? ????????
?????? ????? 34
???????? ??????????? ??????? ????????

??????????? , ???????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????. ??????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????. ???????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??? ??????????????. ??????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ????????????? ???, ??????????????????? ?? ??????????????. 41° ? 28° ?? ??? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????, ?????? ?????? (Golden Horn) ?? ????????????? ???????? ??????????????? ????????????????. ????????? ??????, ????????????? , ??????????? , ?????????? ???????? ??????????, ???? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????????????. ??? ??????????, ?????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????. ??.?? 330 - 395 ??? ????? ???????? ?????????????, 395 - 1453 ??? ????????? ???????? ????????????, 1453 - 1923 ??? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ??? ??????????. 1923 ??? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????????, ????????, ????????????????????? ????????????? ?????????????. ???????????, ???????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ????? ????? ????? ?????.

????? ?????? [ ???? ]

????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ( ??????? ???? : Βυζ?ντιον , Byzantion ) ?????. ??? ??????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????????????? ??.??. 660 ??? ????? ?????????????? ????????????? ?????????.

?????? [ ???? ]

  • ??.??.660 ??? ??????????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ?????????????

??????? ??????????? ????? ????????????? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????. * ??.??. 330 ??? ?????????????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ????????.??? ????????? ?????? (330-395), ????????? ?????? (395-1204 ??????? 1261-1453), ???????? ?????? (1204 - 1261), ??????? ????????? ?????? (1453-1922).

  • ????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? 1453 ?? ????????????? ???????????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????. ?????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????????.
  • ??????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????????????????.
  • 1923 ?? ???????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????????????????? ????????????? ?????????????.
  • 1930 ?? ?????????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????????????

?????????? [ ???? ]

??????????? ??????? 5.343 ???? ??????????? (2,063 ???? ????) ??????????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ????????????. ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????????. ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ??????????????????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????.

???? ?????? ??? ???????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????.???? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????. [1] ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ????????????? ????????????????? ????? ????????????. ????????????? ???? ????????? ???? ????? 288 ??????? (945 ???) ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????. [2] ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????????. ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ????????????. ???????? 1509-?? ??? ???????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? 10,000 ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????????????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????????. 1999 ??? ??????? ??? ?????????????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? 1,000 ???? ????? ??????? 18,000 ???? ????????????. ????????? ???? ??????????? 2030 ?? 7.6 ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? 60 ????? ?????? ????????? ????????????. [3] [4]

??????? [ ???? ]

Skyscrapers, both near and far, soar above a dense layer of fog that keeps the ground hidden from view.
???????? ????????? ???????????????? ???????, ???????? ????????????? ?????????????.

????????????????? ????????-????? ??????????? ????????? ???, ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????????????? ??????????????? ??? ??????????????? ????????????? ??????? ( Csa ) ??????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ( Cfa ) ??????? ???????? ??????? ( Cfb ) ????? ???????????. ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????? ??????????? 20-65 ????????????? ??? ????????????? ??????????. ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????. [5] [6] [7] ???? ????? ????, ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????, ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????? ???????????????. ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????. ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????, ????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????????. ?????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????????. ?? ????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? (????????, 1166.6 ?????????????) ???????? ??????? ????????????? (???????? 635.0 mm) ????? ??????????? ????????????????. [8] ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????????? ??? ??????????? ???? ???????? ????????????, ???????? 12.8 °C (55.0 °F), ??????? 15.03 °C (59.05 °F) [9]

???????????, ??????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ?????. ??? ??????????? ???? ????????? 80 ????????? ??????????. [10] ?????? ???????????? ???????, ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????????????, ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????. ??????????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ???????????????????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????????????. ????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????, ???? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ?????????????. [11] [12] [13] ????????? ???????????, ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????????, ????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????????????. [10] [14] ?????? ??????? ??????????, ???? ?????????????? ????????? 29 °C (84 °F) ???? ??????????????. ??????? ??? ?????????? ??????. ???? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????. [15] ??????????????, ??????? ??????????? ????????? ????????, ??????? ???????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????????. [16]

?????? ????????? ????????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ??????????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????????????. ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????????? 3?4 °?? (37?39 °?) ???? ???????????????. [15] ????????????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ???????????? ??????????????, ?????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????, ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????. [17] ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????????, ?????????? ??????????????? ????? ????????? ????????, ?????????????? ????? ???????? ????????, ???????????? ??? ?????? ????????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????????. [14] [18] ?????????????, ??????????????? ?????????? ????????? 115 ??????? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ????????????, ??? ??? ???????????? 852 ???????????????? (33.5 ???) ???? ???????????????. [15] [19] ?????? ?????????? ???? ???????????? 40.5 °C (105 °F) ???, ???? ???????????? ?16.1 °C (3 °F) ??? ???????????????. ????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????????? 227 ???????????????? (8.9 ???) ??????????????, ???????? ?????????? ???? ??? ??????? 80 ???????????????? (31 ???) ???? ???????????????. [20] [21]

????????? ?????? ?????, ????????????? (?????????), 1960-2012
????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????
?????????? ??????? °C (°F) 22.4
(72.3) 		22.1
(71.8) 		26.8
(80.2) 		33.3
(91.9) 		36.4
(97.5) 		40.6
(105.1) 		40.6
(105.1) 		40.1
(104.2) 		36.6
(97.9) 		33.5
(92.3) 		27.0
(80.6) 		25.0
(77) 		40.6
(105.1)
???? ?????? °C (°F) 9.2
(48.6) 		9.8
(49.6) 		12.0
(53.6) 		17.1
(62.8) 		22.2
(72) 		27.0
(80.6) 		29.4
(84.9) 		29.2
(84.6) 		25.6
(78.1) 		20.4
(68.7) 		15.5
(59.9) 		11.4
(52.5) 		19.07
(66.32)
?????? ?????? °C (°F) 6.5
(43.7) 		6.5
(43.7) 		8.3
(46.9) 		12.7
(54.9) 		17.5
(63.5) 		22.1
(71.8) 		24.4
(75.9) 		24.2
(75.6) 		20.9
(69.6) 		16.4
(61.5) 		12.2
(54) 		8.7
(47.7) 		15.03
(59.06)
???? ?????? °C (°F) 4.0
(39.2) 		4.0
(39.2) 		5.4
(41.7) 		9.2
(48.6) 		13.6
(56.5) 		18.0
(64.4) 		20.4
(68.7) 		20.5
(68.9) 		17.4
(63.3) 		13.6
(56.5) 		9.5
(49.1) 		6.3
(43.3) 		11.83
(53.29)
?????????? ???? °C (°F) -6.8
(19.8) 		-6.4
(20.5) 		-5.6
(21.9) 		0.2
(32.4) 		4.8
(40.6) 		9.8
(49.6) 		13.6
(56.5) 		14.3
(57.7) 		7.7
(45.9) 		3.3
(37.9) 		-2.0
(28.4) 		-4.2
(24.4) 		?6.8
(19.8)
?????? mm (inches) 83.4
(3.283) 		65.5
(2.579) 		60.2
(2.37) 		53.3
(2.098) 		29.3
(1.154) 		25.8
(1.016) 		20.9
(0.823) 		24.5
(0.965) 		35.8
(1.409) 		67.9
(2.673) 		74.0
(2.913) 		99.1
(3.902) 		639.7
(25.185)
?????? ?????? ??????? (≥ 0.1 mm) 16.1 14.1 11.9 10.8 7.3 5.2 3.5 3.9 5.4 9.7 11.1 15.9 114.9
???????? ????? 71.3 87.6 133.3 180.0 251.1 300.0 322.4 294.5 243.0 164.3 102.0 68.2 2,217.7
??????: ????????? ??? ?????? ????????? ???? [15] [19] (1960?2012)

?????? ????????? [ ???? ]

???????? ??????? ??????????
???????????? ????
????? ?.??.
100 36,000
361 3,00,000
500 4,00,000
7th c. 150?350,000
8th c. 125?500,000
9th c. 50?250,000
1000 150?300,000
1100 2,00,000
1200 1,50,000
1261 1,00,000
1350 80,000
1453 45,000
1500 2,00,000
1550 6,60,000
1700 7,00,000
1800 5,70,000
1850 7,85,000
1914 11,25,000
?????????????? ????
????? ?.??. ±%
1924 5,00,000 ?    
1927 6,80,000 +36.0%
1935 7,41,000 +9.0%
1940 7,93,000 +7.0%
1945 8,60,000 +8.4%
1950 9,83,000 +14.3%
1955 12,58,000 +28.0%
1960 14,66,000 +16.5%
1965 17,42,000 +18.8%
1970 21,32,000 +22.4%
1975 25,47,000 +19.5%
1980 27,72,000 +8.8%
1985 54,75,000 +97.5%
1990 76,20,000 +39.2%
1995 92,60,000 +21.5%
2000 1,09,23,000 +18.0%
2005 1,20,61,000 +10.4%
2010 1,32,56,000 +9.9%
????????: Chandler 1987 , Morris 2010 , and Turan 2010
???????????? ??????? ????????? ??????????

???? ??????????????? ?????? ?????????, ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????????????. ??.??. 500 ??? ????????? ?????????????????? ????? ???? ????????????, ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? 400,000 ??????? 500,000 ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????. [24] ?????????????????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????????, 13 ??? ?????????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????????????? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????????? ?????????????. ??? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????, 19 ??? ???????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????????????, ???????????????????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ????? ????? ??????????. [25] ?????, ??? ??????? ??????????? ???????, ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????.

?? ??????? ???? ????????? [ ???? ]

??????????????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????. ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????????????. ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????????? ????????????. [26] ????????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????????? ????????????????????? (??????. 1970 ????? ??????????????????????). [27] ??????????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????, ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ????????????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????. [28] [29] [30] [31] [32]

??????????? [ ???? ]

???????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ????????????? 301.1 ????????? ???????? ???????????, ??????????? 2011 ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? 29 ??? ???????? ???????. [33] 1990 ????? ?????????? ???, ??????????????? ???????????, ????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????? ????????? ?????????? ????????????? ??? ?????? ??????????????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????. ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ????????????, ??????????? 2025 ??? ????????? 291.5 ????????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ?????????????, ??? ?????????? 14 ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????????. [34] ???????????? ????? ????????? ???????????? 27 ???????? ????????????????????? ????????????, 20 ?????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????????. [35] ????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????? 70 ??????? ??????? 50 ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????????. ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ????????. ???????? ??????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????, ???????? ??? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??????. ?????? ??????????????? ???? ??????????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????????????, ?????? ??????????????? ????????? ????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????. [36]

??????? ???? ????? ??????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????, ???????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????????. 200 ????????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????????????????????, ??????????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????? ???????????????. [37] ???? ???????, ??????????????? ??????????, ?????? ??????????? ??????????, ??????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????????????????. [38] ??????????????? ????????? ?????????, ????????? ?????????, ??????? ?????????????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????????. [39] [40] ????????? ????????? ??????????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????. [41] 2007 ??? ?????????, ???? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? 1.5 ????????? ??????????? ??.?.??????? ???????????????? (?????????? ????????????? 354,000 ??.?.???????), ?????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????? ???????? ????????. [42] ?????????????? ?????????, ??????????????????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????????????? ???????????????. [43] ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????????? ????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????????.

??????????? ??? ???????????????????? ????????? ????? ??????????????????. ????? 2000 ??? ??????? 2.4 ????????? ??????????????? ????????? ????????, 2012 ??? ??????? 11.6 ????????? ???????????? ????????????????? ????????????. ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????. [44] ????????? ????????????? ??????????? ????????????? ????? 17 ?????????, 64 ?????????????, ??????? 49 ??????????? ???? ???????? ????????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ?????. [45]

????? [ ???? ]

A triumphal arch adjacent to a Turkish flag and in front of an open plaza
1453 ??? ???????????, ????????? ????????? ????????? ?????????, ??????????? ????????????????? ?????? ??????????.

??????????? ????????????? 1453 ??? ????? ?????????????. ????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ????????????. ???????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????, ??????? 19 ??? ???????????? ???????????????????? ??????, ??????????, ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????????????, ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????. [46] 1773 ??? ????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ??? ?????????? ???????????, ???????????? ????????? ???????????????? ????????????????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???????????????? ????????????. [47] [48] ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????. [49] 1970 ????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????????????, ???????? ???? ?????????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????????, ????? ??????????????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ????????????????????. [50]

??????????????? ??????????? ?? ???????????????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ????????, ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????. ??????????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????????????????, ?????? ??????????????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ?????? ??????? ??????????????. ??? 1863 ??? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????, ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????? ????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????????????. ???? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ????????? 1971 ??? ????? ??????? ?????????????????????, ??????? ?????????????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????????????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???????????????. [51] [52] ???????????? ??????? ???????????????? 1982 ??? ????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????. ????? ??????????????? 1970 ??? ????????? ??????? ????????????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? "???? ??????????" ???????. 1982 ??? ????????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???? ????????????????? (1992 ??? ????? ?????????????), ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????????????. [51] ?????, ??????????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ????? ???? ????????????? ???????????, ????????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????. [53] ???????? ??????????? ?????????, ??? ????? ????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????, ????????????? ????????????? ?????????????, ??? 15,000 ??????, 20,000 ??????????? ????????? ???????????????? ????????????????????????? ??? ?????????????? ?????????. [54] [55]

2007 ??? ???????, 4,350 ?????????? ???????????, ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????????. ????????? ??????? ??????????? 688 ??????????? ???????????. ????????? ??????????, ??????????????? ????? ????????? 2000 ??? ????????????? 2007 ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????????????????. ????????????? ????????????? ????????????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????, ??????????? ????????? 60 ????????????? ????? ???????????????. [56] 1481 ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????, ??????????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????????? ????? ????????????? ????????????. ?????????? ???????? II ?????????? ??????????? ??????????????. ???? ???????? ??????????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????. [57] ??? ???????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????. ????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ????????????. ?????????????, ??????????, ??????????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????, ??????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????????? ?????????????. [58] [59] ????????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????. ??? 19 ??? ???????????? ????????????????????? ?????????????? ????????????. [60]

??????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????????????????? ?????. ?????????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????, ??????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????????. ??? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ???? ???, ????????? ????????, ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????????????????????????. ??????????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????????, ?????????? ???????????? ???? ????????????? ?????? ????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????. ??????????? ???? ??????????????? ???????? ???????? ??????????????, ??????????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????. ??????? ????? ???????? ???????????, ????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????? ????????????????. [61] ????????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? (1908 ??? ????? ?????????????) [62] ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? (1955 ??? ????? ?????????????) [63] ????? ???????????????.

??????????? [ ???? ]

  1. ↑ ???? ??????: ??????? <ref> ??????????; city-area ??????? ??????? ???? ref ???????????????? ????????? ???????????????

??????????? [ ???? ]

  1. ↑ "Istanbul from a Bird's Eye View" . Governorship of Istanbul. Archived from the original on 17 ?? 2009 . ????????????? ???? 13 June 2010 .
  2. ↑ "The Topography of ?stanbul" . Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism . ????????????? ???? 19 June 2012 .
  3. ↑ Parsons, Tom; Toda, Shinji; Stein, Ross S.; Barka, Aykut; Dieterich, James H. (2000). "Heightened Odds of Large Earthquakes Near Istanbul: An Interaction-Based Probability Calculation". Science (Washington, D.C.: The American Association for the Advancement of Science) 288 (5466): 661?5. doi : 10.1126/science.288.5466.661 . ??????? : 10784447 .  
  4. ↑ Traynor, Ian (9 December 2006). "A Disaster Waiting to Happen ? Why a Huge Earthquake Near Istanbul Seems Inevitable" . The Guardian (UK) . http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/dec/09/turkey.naturaldisasters . ??????? ????: 13 June 2010 .  
  5. ↑ Kottek, Markus; Grieser, Jurgen; Beck, Christoph; Rudolf, Bruno; Rube, Franz (June 2006). "World Map of the Koppen-Geiger climate classi?cation updated" . Meteorologische Zeitschrift 15 (3): 259?263. doi : 10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130 . http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf . ??????? ????: 29 March 2013 .  
  6. ↑ Peel, M. C.; Finlayson, B. L.; McMahon, T. A. (2007). "Updated world map of the Koppen-Geiger climate classi?cation" . Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 4 (2): 439?473. doi : 10.5194/hessd-4-439-2007 . http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/4/439/2007/hessd-4-439-2007.pdf . ??????? ????: 29 March 2013 .  
  7. ↑ "[Monthly Total Participation Data: August]" (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 16 ?? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 6 July 2012 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  8. ↑ "COMPARISONS OF ANNUAL MEAN PRECIPITATION, GRIDDED AND STATION DATA: AN EXAMPLE FROM ISTANBUL, TURKEY" . Archived from the original on 2016-11-17 . ????????????? ???? 2014-05-18 .
  9. ↑ Bahcekoy Orman ??letme Mudurlu?u
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Weather ? Istanbul" . World Weather . BBC Weather Centre . ????????????? ???? 15 October 2012 .
  11. ↑ "Istanbul Enshrouded in Dense Fog" . Turkish Daily News . 14 January 2005. Archived from the original on 18 ???????? 2017 . ????????????? ???? 15 October 2012 .
  12. ↑ "Thick Fog Causes Disruption, Flight Delays in ?stanbul" . Today's Zaman . 23 November 2009. Archived from the original on 4 ??????? 2013 . ????????????? ???? 15 October 2012 .
  13. ↑ "Dense Fog Disrupts Life in Istanbul" . Today's Zaman . 6 November 2010. Archived from the original on 4 ??????? 2013 . ????????????? ???? 15 October 2012 .
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Pelit, Attila. "When to Go to Istanbul" . TimeOut Istanbul . Archived from the original on 14 ???????? 2011 . ????????????? ???? 19 December 2011 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 "Resmi ?statistikler (?l ve ?lcelerimize Ait ?statistiki Veriler)" (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service . ????????????? ???? 29 April 2013 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  16. ↑ Quantic 2008 , ?. 155
  17. ↑ Kindap, Tayfin (19 January 2010). "A Severe Sea-Effect Snow Episode Over the City of Istanbul" . Natural Hazards 54 (3): 703?23. doi : 10.1007/s11069-009-9496-7 . ??????????? ?? ????? ??? : 1573-0840 . http://www.springerlink.com/content/cu66841r30p20v72/ . ??????? ????: 15 October 2012 .   [ ??????????? ??????? ]
  18. ↑ "Istanbul Winds Battle Over the City" . Turkish Daily News . 17 October 2009. Archived from the original on 18 ???????? 2017 . ????????????? ???? 15 October 2012 .
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Yıllık Toplam Ya?ı? Verileri" (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 1 ???????? 2013 . ????????????? ???? 6 July 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter | https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093300/http://dmi.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/yillik-toplam-yagis-verileri.aspx?m= ignored ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  20. ↑ "?stanbul Bolge Mudurlu?u'ne Ba?lı ?stasyonlarda Olculen Ekstrem De?erler" (PDF) (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 ???? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 27 July 2010 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  21. ↑ "March 1987 Cyclone (Blizzard) over the Eastern Mediterranean and Balkan Region Associated with Blocking" . American Meteorological Society . ????????????? ???? 27 July 2010 .
  22. ↑ The Yearly Measurements by Kirecburnu Station Between 1990-1999
  23. ↑ The Yearly Measurements by Bahcekoy Station Between 1990-1999
  24. ↑ Morris 2010 , ?. 113
  25. ↑ Chandler 1987 , ?. 463?505
  26. ↑ Masters & Agoston 2009 , ?. 520?1
  27. ↑ Wedel 2000 , ?. 182
  28. ↑ Amikam Nachmani (2003). Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium : Coping With Intertwined Conflicts . Manchester University Press. pp. 90?. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-7190-6370-1 . ????????????? ???? 5 May 2013 .
  29. ↑ Milliyet Konda Ara?tırma (2006). "Biz Kimiz: Toplumsal Yapı Ara?tırması" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 ???????? 2017 . ????????????? ???? 4 May 2013 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  30. ↑ Agirdir, Bekir (2008). "Kurtler ve Kurt Sorunu" (PDF) . KONDA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 ??????? 2013 . ????????????? ???? 4 May 2013 .
  31. ↑ Bekir Agirdir. "Kurtlerin nufusu 11 milyonda ?stanbul"da 2 milyon Kurt ya?ıyor" . http://www.radikal.com.tr/radikal.aspx?atype=radikaldetayv3&articleid=913650 . ??????? ????: 4 May 2013 .  
  32. ↑ Christiane Bird (18 December 2007). A Thousand Sighs, A Thousand Revolts: Journeys in Kurdistan . Random House Publishing Group. pp. 308?. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-307-43050-2 . ????????????? ???? 4 May 2013 .
  33. ↑ "Global MetroMonitor" . Brookings Institution. 30 November 2012. Archived from the original on 6 ????? 2013 . ????????????? ???? 13 April 2013 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  34. ↑ "The Most Dynamic Cities of 2025" . Foreign Policy . September?October 2012. Archived from the original on 4 ??????? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 13 April 2013 .
  35. ↑ "Presentation of Reference City: Istanbul" . Urban Green Environment. 2001. Archived from the original on 17 ????? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 30 December 2011 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  36. ↑ Geromel, Ricardo (14 March 2013). "Forbes Top 10 Billionaire Cities - Moscow Beats New York Again" . Forbes . ????????????? ???? 27 July 2013 .
  37. ↑ Oxford Business Group 2009 , ?. 112
  38. ↑ Jones, Sam, and agencies (27 April 2011). "Istanbul's new Bosphorus canal 'to surpass Suez or Panama' " . The Guardian . ????????????? ???? 29 April 2012 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )
  39. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2008 , ?. 80
  40. ↑ "Ports of Turkey" . Cerrahogullari T.A.S. Archived from the original on 6 ?????????? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 28 August 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  41. ↑ Cavusoglu, Omer (March 2010). "Summary on the Haydarpasa Case Study Site" (PDF) . Cities Programme . London School of Economics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 ???? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 3 April 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  42. ↑ Zeybek, Hulya; Kaynak, Muhtesem (27?30 May 2008). "What Role for Turkish Ports in the Regional Logistics Supply Chains?" (PDF) . International Conference on Information Systems and Supply Chain. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 ???????? 2009 . ????????????? ???? 28 August 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  43. ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2008 , ?. 143
  44. ↑ Kerimo?lu, Ebra; Ciraci, Hale. "Urban Tourism: An Analysis of Visitors to Istanbul" (PDF) . Vienna University of Economics and Business. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-22 . ????????????? ???? 2014-05-15 .
  45. ↑ "Istanbul '10" (PDF) . Turkey Tourism Market Research Reports . Istanbul Valuation and Consulting. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 ???? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 29 March 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help ) (n.b. Source indicates that the Topkapı Palace Museum and the Hagia Sophia together bring in 55 million TL , approximately $30 million in 2010, on an annual basis.)
  46. ↑ "History" . Istanbul University. 11 August 2011. Archived from the original on 13 ??????? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 20 August 2012 .
  47. ↑ "History" . Istanbul Technical University . ????????????? ???? 4 July 2012 .
  48. ↑ "University Profile: Istanbul Technical University, Turkey" . Board of European Students of Technology. Archived from the original on 16 ??????? 2011 . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 .
  49. ↑ "State Universities" . The Turkish Council of Higher Education. Archived from the original on 30 ??????? 2011 . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 .
  50. ↑ "About Marmara" . Marmara University. Archived from the original on 30 ???? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 4 July 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Do?ramacı, ?hsan (August 2005). "Private Versus Public Universities: The Turkish Experience" (DOC) . 18th International Conference on Higher Education . Ankara . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 .
  52. ↑ "History of RC" . Robert College. 2012 . ????????????? ???? 15 October 2012 .
  53. ↑ "Private Universities" . The Turkish Council of Higher Education. Archived from the original on 30 ??????? 2011 . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 .
  54. ↑ "Baraja nazır en akıllı kent" . Hurriyet . 4 May 2013 . http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/23201783.asp . ??????? ????: 5 May 2013 .  
  55. ↑ "AECOM expands Bio Istanbul role with project management appointment" . http://www.aecom.com . AECOM. 4 September 2012 . ????????????? ???? 4 May 2013 . {{ cite web }} : External link in |work= ( help ) [ ??????????? ??????? ]
  56. ↑ "2007 Yılına Ait Veriler" (in Turkish). Governorship of Istanbul. Archived from the original on 2 ?????? 2011 . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archivedate= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  57. ↑ "Historique" (in French). Galatasaray University . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  58. ↑ "Milli E?itim Bakanlı?ı Anadolu Liseleri Yonetmeli?i" (in Turkish). Ministry of Education. 5 November 1999. Archived from the original on 15 ???? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 30 March 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  59. ↑ "Galatasaray Lisesi" . Galatasaray High School . ????????????? ???? 4 July 2012 .
  60. ↑ "The History of the Italian School" . Liceo Italiano. Archived from the original on 20 ????? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 3 July 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  61. ↑ "Principles of Education" . Daru??afaka High School. Archived from the original on 9 ?? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 6 July 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |= ignored ( help )
  62. ↑ "Kabata? Erkek Lisesi" (in Turkey). Kabata? Erkek Lisesi. Archived from the original on 2 ?????? 2012 . ????????????? ???? 31 March 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )
  63. ↑ "KAL Uygulamalı Yabancı Dil Laboratuvarı" (in Turkish). Kadıkoy Anadolu Lisesi. Archived from the original on 20 ???? 2013 . ????????????? ???? 31 March 2012 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: unrecognized language ( link )

???????????? [ ???? ]

?????? ??????? [ ???? ]

???? ???????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ???????????? ,
Istanbul
???????? ???????? ?????.


" https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=???????????&oldid=3927580 " ????????? ?????????????????