Czech pre-Protestant Christian movement
The
Hussites
(
Czech
:
Husite
or
Kali?nici
"Chalice People";
Latin
:
Hussitae
) were a Czech
proto-Protestant
Christian movement
that followed the teachings of reformer
Jan Hus
(
fl.
1401–1415), a part of the
Bohemian Reformation
.
After the execution of Hus at the
Council of Constance
,
[1]
a series of crusades, civil wars, victories and compromises between various factions with different theological agendas broke out. At the end of the
Hussite Wars
(1420?1434), the now
Catholic
-supported
Utraquist
side came out victorious from conflict with the
Taborites
and became the dominant Hussite group in Bohemia.
Catholics and Utraquists were given legal equality in Bohemia after the
religious peace of Kutna Hora
in 1485.
Bohemia
and
Moravia
, or what is now the territory of the
Czech Republic
, remained majority Hussite for two centuries until
Roman Catholicism
was reimposed by the
Holy Roman Emperor
following the 1620
Battle of White Mountain
during the
Thirty Years' War
.
The Hussite tradition continues in the
Moravian Church
,
Unity of the Brethren
and the refounded
Czechoslovak Hussite
churches.
[2]
History
[
edit
]
The Hussite movement began in the
Kingdom of Bohemia
and quickly spread throughout the remaining
Lands of the Bohemian Crown
, including
Moravia
and
Silesia
. It also made inroads into the northern parts of the
Kingdom of Hungary
(now
Slovakia
), but was rejected and gained infamy for the plundering behaviour of the Hussite soldiers.
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
There were also very small temporary communities in
Poland-Lithuania
and
Transylvania
which moved to Bohemia after being confronted with religious intolerance. It was a regional movement that failed to expand farther. Hussites emerged as a majority
Utraquist
movement with a significant
Taborite
faction, and smaller regional ones that included
Adamites
,
Orebites
and
Orphans
.
Major Hussite theologians included
Petr Chel?icky
,
Jerome of Prague
. A number of Czech national heroes were Hussite, including
Jan ?i?ka
, who led a fierce resistance to five consecutive crusades proclaimed on Hussite Bohemia by the
Papacy
. Hussites were one of the most important forerunners of the
Protestant Reformation
. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened
Czech
national awareness.
Hus's death
[
edit
]
The
Council of Constance
lured Jan Hus in with a letter of indemnity, then tried him for heresy and put him to death at the stake on 6 July 1415.
[1]
The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in
Czech lands
. The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to
King Sigismund
to release Jan Hus.
When news of his death at the
Council of Constance
arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the
clergy
and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act. King
Wenceslaus IV.
, prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in
Constance
. His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government.
A league was formed by certain lords,
[
who?
]
who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the
Bible
. The university would arbitrate any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league. Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417. At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Catholic priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread. The chalice of wine became the central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement.
[7]
If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the
Catholic Church
, and the council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge.
Prior to becoming pope,
Martin V
, then known as Cardinal Otto of
Colonna
had attacked Hus with relentless severity. He energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the
Council of Constance
. He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained.
[
citation needed
]
In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the
heretics
in Bohemia found further protection.
[
citation needed
]
Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419.
[
citation needed
]
His heir was Sigismund.
Hussite Wars (1419?1434)
[
edit
]
The news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague. A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property was seized by the Hussite nobility. It was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (
?en?k of Wartenberg
) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. Sigismund could get possession of "his" kingdom only by force of arms. Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of the West to take up arms against the Hussites, declaring a crusade, and
twelve years of warfare
followed.
The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive. Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united, and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of
crusaders
but crossed the borders into neighboring countries. On March 23, 1430,
Joan of Arc
dictated a letter
[8]
that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat.
Council of Basel and Compacta of Prague
[
edit
]
Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. The Hussites were sent an invitation to attend the
ecumenical
Council of Basel
on October 15, 1431.
[9]
The discussions began on 10 January 1432, focusing chiefly on the four articles of
Prague
. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian?Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the
"
Compactata
"
of Prague on 30 November 1433. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind, though on the condition that the rest of the Hussite reforms would no longer be emphasised.
[9]
Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed.
The Taborites refused to conform. The Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the
Battle of Lipany
on 30 May 1434.
[10]
From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in
Poland
for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the
Battle of Grotniki
. The state assembly of
Jihlava
in 1436 confirmed the
"Compactata"
and gave them the sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown.
[10]
His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the
Utraquists
, as heresy in 1444. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" (
Latin
:
"Unitas Fratrum"
) (see
history of the Moravian Church
).
Hussite Bohemia, Luther and the Reformation (1434?1618)
[
edit
]
In 1462,
Pope Pius II
declared the
"Compacta"
null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King
George of Podebrady
as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with the Roman Church. This he refused, leading to the
Bohemian?Hungarian War (1468?1478)
. His successor, King
Vladislaus II
, favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the
Diet of Kutna Hora
, an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists that lasted for thirty-one years. It was only later, at the Diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established. The appearance of
Martin Luther
was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists approved of the German
Reformation
; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised the
"
Unitas Fratrum
"
already in 1457.
Bohemian Revolt and harsh persecution under the Habsburgs (1618?1918)
[
edit
]
Under Emperor
Maximilian II
, the Bohemian state assembly established the
"
Confessio Bohemica
"
, upon which Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From that time forward Hussitism began to die out. After the
Battle of White Mountain
on 8 November 1620 the
Roman Catholic Faith
was re-established with vigour, which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of the
Czech lands
.
Leaders and members of
Unitas Fratrum
were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the
Holy Roman Empire
(mainly
Austria
,
Hungary
,
Bohemia
,
Moravia
and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly. As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe. The largest remaining communities of the Brethren were located in Lissa (
Leszno
) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia. Some, among them
Jan Amos Comenius
, fled to western Europe, mainly the
Low Countries
. A settlement of Hussites in
Herrnhut
, Saxony, now Germany, in 1722 caused the emergence of the
Moravian Church
.
Post-Habsburg era and modern times (1918?present)
[
edit
]
In 1918, as a result of
World War I
, the
Czech lands
regained independence from
Austria-Hungary
controlled by the
Habsburg monarchy
as
Czechoslovakia
(due to Masaryk and Czechoslovak legions with Hussite tradition, in the name of the troops).
[11]
Today, the Hussite tradition is represented in the
Moravian Church
,
Unity of the Brethren
, and
Czechoslovak Hussite Church
.
[2]
[12]
Factions
[
edit
]
Hussitism organised itself during the years 1415?1419. Hussites were not a unitary movement, but a diverse one with multiple factions that held different views and opposed each other in the
Hussite Wars
. From the beginning, there formed two parties, with a smaller number of people withdrawing from both parties around the pacifist
Petr Chel?icky
, whose teachings would form the foundation of the
Unitas Fratrum
. Hussites can be divided into:
Moderates
[
edit
]
The more conservative Hussites (the moderate party, or
Utraquists
), who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched.
[13]
Their programme is contained in the Four Articles of
Prague
, which were written by
Jacob of Mies
and agreed upon in July 1420, promulgated in the
Latin
,
Czech
, and
German
languages.
[14]
The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as:
[14]
- Freedom to preach the word of God
- Celebration of the
communion under both kinds
(bread and wine to priests and
laity
alike)
- Poverty of the clergy and expropriation of church property;
- Punishment for
mortal sins
regardless of stature.
The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at the university and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague Party, but also Calixtines (Latin
calix
chalice) or
Utraquists
(Latin
utraque
both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem.
Radicals
[
edit
]
The more radical parties, the
Taborites
,
Orebites
and
Orphans
, identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of
John Wycliffe
, sharing his passionate hatred of the
monastic
clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles. This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions. Above all they clung to Wycliffe's doctrine of the
Lord's Supper
, denying
transubstantiation
,
[15]
and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party, the
Utraquists
.
The radicals preached the
"sufficientia legis Christi"
?the divine law (i.e. the
Bible
) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters. They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the
veneration
of saints and images,
fasts
, superfluous holidays, the oath, intercession for the dead, auricular
Confession
,
indulgences
, the sacraments of
Confirmation
and the
Anointing of the Sick
, and chose their own priests.
The radicals had their gathering-places all around the country. Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Usti, on the river Lu?nice, south of Prague (today's
Sezimovo Usti
). However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled in the remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named
Tabor
(a play on words, as "Tabor" not only meant "camp" or "encampment" in
Czech
,
[16]
but is also the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see
Mark 13
); hence they were called Taborite (
Taborites
). They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites.
Their aim was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword. Their end-of-world visions did not come true. In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and
usury
, and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to the social order of the time. The Taborites usually had the support of the
Orebites
(later called Orphans), an eastern Bohemian sect of Hussitism based in
Hradec Kralove
.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005
ISBN
978-0-19-280290-3
), article "Constance, Council of"
- ^
a
b
N?mec, Ludvik "The Czechoslovak heresy and schism: the emergence of a national Czechoslovak church," American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975,
ISBN
0-87169-651-7
- ^
Spiesz
et al.
2006, p. 52.
- ^
Bartl 2002, p. 45.
- ^
Kirschbaum 2005, p. 48.
- ^
Spiesz
et al.
2006, p. 53.
- ^
John Klassen, "The Nobility and the Making of the Hussite Revolution" (
East European Quarterly
/Columbia University Press, 1978)
- ^
"Joan of Arc's Letter to the Hussites (March 23, 1430)"
.
archive.joan-of-arc.org
.
- ^
a
b
Fudge, Thomas A. (1998).
The magnificent ride : the first reformation in Hussite Bohemia
. Internet Archive. Aldershot, Hants ; Brookfield, Vt. : Ashgate.
ISBN
978-1-85928-372-1
.
- ^
a
b
Malcolm Lambert (1992).
Medieval heresy
. Internet Archive. B. Blackwell.
ISBN
978-0-631-17431-8
.
- ^
PRECLIK, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie (Masaryk and legions), vaz. kniha, 219 str., vydalo nakladatelstvi Paris Karvina, ?i?kova 2379 (734 01 Karvina) ve spolupraci s Masarykovym demokratickym hnutim (Masaryk Democratic Movement), 2019,
ISBN
978-80-87173-47-3
, pp. 17?25, 33?45, 70?76, 159?184, 187?199
- ^
Sheldon, Addison Erwin; Sellers, James Lee; Olson, James C. (1993).
Nebraska History, Volume 74
. Nebraska State Historical Society. p. 151.
- ^
"Utraquism’s faithfulness to the Prague
Use
of the
Roman rite
…(was) an intentional symbol of Utraquism’s self-understanding as a continuing part of the Western Catholic Church."
Holeton, David R.; Vlhova-Worner, Hana; Bilkova, Milena (2007).
"The Trope Gregorius presul meritis in Bohemian Tradition: Its Origins, Development, Liturgical Function and Illustration"
(PDF)
.
Bohemian Reformation and Religious Practice
.
6
: 215?246
. Retrieved
18 November
2023
.
- ^
a
b
Four Articles of Prague
at global.britannica.com
- ^
Cook, William R. (1973).
"John Wyclif and Hussite Theology 1415-1436"
.
Church History
.
42
(3): 335?349.
doi
:
10.2307/3164390
.
ISSN
0009-6407
.
JSTOR
3164390
.
- ^
Profous, Antonin (1957).
Mistni jmena v ?echach: Jejich vznik, p?vodni vyznam a zm?ny; part 4, S-?
. Prague, Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Michael Van Dussen and Pavel Soukup (eds.). 2020.
A Companion to the Hussites
. Brill.
- Kaminsky, H.
(1967)
A History of the Hussite Revolution
University of California Press: Los Angeles.
- Fudge, Thomas A. (1998)
The Magnificent Ride: The First Reformation in Hussite Bohemia
, Ashgate.
- Fudge, Thomas A. (2002)
The Crusade against Heretics in Bohemia
, Ashgate.
- Ond?ej, Brodu, "Traktat mistra Ond?eje z Brodu o p?vodu husit?" (
Latin
:
"Visiones Ioannis, archiepiscopi Pragensis, et earundem explicaciones, alias Tractatus de origine Hussitarum"
), Muzem husitskeho revolu?niho hnuti, Tabor, 1980,
OCLC
28333729
in
(in Latin)
with introduction in
(in Czech)
- Mathies, Christiane, "Kurfurstenbund und Konigtum in der Zeit der Hussitenkriege: die kurfurstliche Reichspolitik gegen Sigmund im Kraftzentrum Mittelrhein," Selbstverlag der Gesellschaft fur Mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte, Mainz, 1978,
OCLC
05410832
in
(in German)
- Bezold, Friedrich von, "Konig Sigmund und die Reichskriege gegen die Husiten," G. Olms, Hildesheim, 1978,
ISBN
3-487-05967-3
in
(in German)
- Denis, Ernest
, "Huss et la Guerre des Hussites," AMS Press, New York, 1978,
ISBN
0-404-16126-X
in
(in French)
- Klassen, John (1998) "Hus, the Hussites, and Bohemia" in
New Cambridge Medieval History
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
- Macek, Josef, "Jean Huss et les Traditions Hussites: XVe?XIXe siecles," Plon, Paris, 1973,
OCLC
905875
in
(in French)
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[
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]
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