Subclass of English Reformed Protestants
The
Puritans
were English
Protestants
in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the
Church of England
of what they considered to be
Roman Catholic
practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant.
Puritanism played a significant role in English and early American history, especially during
the Protectorate
.
Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the
English Reformation
and with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with the Roman Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and
doctrine
, as well as personal and corporate
piety
. Puritans adopted a
covenant theology
, and in that sense they were
Calvinists
(as were many of their earlier opponents). In church polity, Puritans were divided between supporters of
episcopal
,
presbyterian
, and
congregational
polities. Some believed a uniform reform of the
established church
was called for to create a godly nation, while others advocated separation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomous
gathered churches
, called-out from the world. These
Separatist
and
Independents
became more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in the
Westminster Assembly
were unable to forge a new English national church.
By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the
royal prerogative
, and with the
Scottish Presbyterians
with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the
First English Civil War
(1642?1646).
Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the
restoration of the monarchy
in 1660 and the
1662 Uniformity Act
. Many continued to practice their faith in
nonconformist
denominations, especially in
Congregationalist
and
Presbyterian
churches.
The nature of the Puritan movement in England changed radically. In New England, it retained its character for a
longer period
.
Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and the term
Puritan
itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into the doctrines of the Church of England; others were absorbed into the many Protestant denominations that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries in North America and Britain. The Congregational churches, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, are descended from the Puritans.
[3]
[4]
Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in the
Savoy Declaration
, the
confession of faith
held by the Congregationalist churches.
Terminology
[
edit
]
In the 17th century, the word
Puritan
was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism.
Originally,
Puritan
was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist.
Thomas Fuller
, in his
Church History
, dates the first use of the word to 1564. Archbishop
Matthew Parker
of that time used it and
precisian
with a sense similar to the modern
stickler
.
[7]
Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England".
As a term of abuse,
Puritan
was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to as
Puritan
called themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children".
"Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with the
Reformation of the Church of England
but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed "
Nonconformists
", "
Separatists
", or "separating Puritans", thought the
Church of England
was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense, the term
Puritan
includes both groups.
[10]
Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as
Quakers
,
Seekers
, and
Familists
, who believed that individuals could be directly guided by the
Holy Spirit
. They gave precedence to
direct revelation
over the
Bible
.
In current English,
puritan
often means "against pleasure". In such usage,
hedonism
and
puritanism
are
antonyms
.
[13]
William Shakespeare
described the vain, pompous killjoy
Malvolio
in
Twelfth Night
as "a kind of Puritan".
[14]
H. L. Mencken
defined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy."
[15]
Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage.
Peter Gay
writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed the Catholic veneration of
virginity
(associated with the Virgin Mary), citing
Edward Taylor
and
John Cotton
.
One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife.
History
[
edit
]
Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time.
Elizabethan Puritanism
[
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]
The
Elizabethan Religious Settlement
of 1559 established the Church of England as a Protestant church and brought the
English Reformation
to a close. During the reign of
Elizabeth I
(r. 1558?1603), the Church of England was widely considered a
Reformed
church, and Calvinists held the best
bishoprics
and
deaneries
. Nevertheless, it preserved certain characteristics of medieval
Catholicism
, such as cathedrals,
church choirs
, a formal
liturgy
contained in the
Book of Common Prayer
, traditional clerical
vestments
, and
episcopal polity
.
Many English Protestants ? especially those former
Marian exiles
returning to England to work as clergy and bishops ? considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church.
The years of exile during the
Marian Restoration
had exposed them to the practices of the
Continental Reformed churches
. The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and the authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing of
metrical psalms
. Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make the
sign of the cross
in baptism, or to use
wedding rings
or the organ.
Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the white
surplice
and
clerical cap
.
Puritan clergymen preferred to wear
black academic attire
. During the
vestments controversy
, church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy.
In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt
presbyterian polity
, under which government by
bishops
would be replaced with government by
elders
.
But all attempts to enact further reforms through
Parliament
were blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such as
John Field
and
Thomas Cartwright
continued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network was discovered and dismantled during the
Marprelate controversy
of the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform.
Caroline Puritanism
[
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]
Jacobean Puritanism
[
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]
The accession of
James I
to the English throne brought the
Millenary Petition
, a Puritan
manifesto
of 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called the
Hampton Court Conference
in 1604, and heard the teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, including
Laurence Chaderton
, but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing an
eirenic
religious policy, in which he was arbiter.
Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably
James Montague
, who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the
Book of Common Prayer
, but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion.
[24]
Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of the
revised
Book of Common Prayer
.
[
citation needed
]
The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings of
William Bradshaw
(who adopted the term "Puritan" for himself), and the beginnings of
Congregationalism
.
Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left the Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer.
Fragmentation and political failure
[
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]
The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time.
The Fifth Monarchy Men
, a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy like
Vavasor Powell
, agitated from the right wing of the movement, even as sectarian groups like the
Ranters
,
Levellers
, and
Quakers
pulled from the left.
The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity.
The
Westminster Assembly
was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly was able to agree to the
Westminster Confession of Faith
doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The
Directory of Public Worship
was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the
Westminster Standards
) was adopted by the
Church of Scotland
. In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660.
The
Westminster Divines
, on the other hand, were divided over questions of
church polity
and split into factions supporting a reformed
episcopacy
,
presbyterianism
,
congregationalism
, and
Erastianism
. The membership of the Assembly was strongly weighted towards the Presbyterians, but
Oliver Cromwell
was a Puritan and an
independent Congregationalist Separatist
who imposed his doctrines upon them. The Church of England of the
Interregnum (1649?60)
was run along Presbyterian lines but never became a national Presbyterian church, such as existed in Scotland. England was not the theocratic state which leading Puritans had called for as "godly rule".
Great Ejection and Dissenters
[
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]
At the time of the
English Restoration
in 1660, the
Savoy Conference
was called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under the
Act of Uniformity 1662
, the Church of England was restored to its pre-
Civil War
constitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historian
Calamy
is that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the "
Great Ejection
" of 1662.
[31]
At this point, the term "
Dissenter
" came to include "Puritan", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who "dissented" from the
1662
Book of Common Prayer
.
The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according to
Richard Baxter
.
[31]
The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using the
Clarendon Code
. There followed a period in which schemes of "comprehension" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. The
Whigs
opposed the court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when the
Toleration Act
was passed in the wake of the
Glorious Revolution
in 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term "
Nonconformist
" generally replaced the term "Dissenter" from the middle of the 18th century.
Puritans in North America
[
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]
Some
Puritans left for New England
, particularly from 1629 to 1640 (the
Eleven Years' Tyranny
under
King Charles I
), supporting the founding of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony
and other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in the United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants.
[34]
This so-called "Great Migration" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated to
Virginia
and the
Caribbean
during this time, many as indentured servants.
[35]
The rapid growth of the New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies.
[36]
Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation of
John Cotton
and
Richard Mather
, 1630?62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development; the generation of
Increase Mather
, 1662?89 from the Restoration and the
Halfway Covenant
to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation of
Cotton Mather
, 1689?1728 from the overthrow of
Edmund Andros
(in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather.
Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be God's agency in social life.
[38]
The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation.
[39]
[40]
In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world.
By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities?New York and Philadelphia?with as many as 20,000 people in them).
[43]
[44]
[45]
The Puritans also set up a college (now
Harvard University
) only six years after arriving in Boston.
[46]
Beliefs
[
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]
Calvinism
[
edit
]
Puritanism
broadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to the
Continental Reformed
tradition.
While Puritans did not agree on all doctrinal points, most shared similar views on the nature of
God
, human
sinfulness
, and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based on the
Bible
, which they considered to be
divinely inspired
.
The concept of covenant was extremely important to Puritans, and
covenant theology
was central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologians
John Calvin
and
Heinrich Bullinger
, covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologians
Dudley Fenner
,
William Perkins
,
John Preston
,
Richard Sibbes
,
William Ames
and, most fully by Ames's Dutch student,
Johannes Cocceius
.
Covenant theology asserts that when God created
Adam and Eve
he promised them
eternal life
in return for perfect obedience; this promise was termed the covenant of
works
. After the
fall of man
, human nature was corrupted by
original sin
and unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in the
Ten Commandments
. As sinners, every person deserved
damnation
.
Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in
double predestination
, that some people (the
elect
) were destined by God to receive
grace
and
salvation
while others were destined for
Hell
.
No one, however, could
merit
salvation. According to covenant theology,
Christ's sacrifice on the cross
made possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed in
unconditional election
and
irresistible grace
?God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused.
Conversion
[
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]
Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical" but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into by
faith
. Therefore, being a Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed "that the
effectual call
of each elect
saint
of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises".
The process by which the elect are brought from
spiritual death
to spiritual life (
regeneration
) was described as
conversion
.
Early on, Puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gained
assurance of salvation
from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election.
The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection,
Bible study
and listening to
preaching
. This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness.
It was after reaching this point?the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine
mercy
?that the person would experience
justification
, when the righteousness of Christ is
imputed
to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being
born again
.
Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. Historian
Perry Miller
wrote that the Puritans "liberated men from the treadmill of
indulgences
and
penances
, but cast them on the iron couch of introspection".
It was expected that conversion would be followed by
sanctification
?"the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life".
Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith by keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal
piety
and sanctification. These included
Arthur Dent's
The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven
(1601),
Richard Rogers's
Seven Treatises
(1603),
Henry Scudder's
Christian's Daily Walk
(1627) and Richard Sibbes's
The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax
(1630).
Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close to
Arminianism
, and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized as
Antinomianism
. Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition.
Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by the
evangelical Protestants
of the 18th century.
While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was "rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted.
Worship and sacraments
[
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]
While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In the 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of the
Morning Prayer
service in the
Book of Common Prayer
. This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within the prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear the
surplice
, and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers.
The sermon was central to Puritan piety.
It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion.
On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching.
Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles.
Puritans were distinct for their adherence to
Sabbatarianism
.
Puritans taught that there were two
sacraments
: baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice of
infant baptism
. However, the effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion of
baptismal regeneration
.
In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology?baptism replaced
circumcision
as a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into the
visible church
. It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that the grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life.
[65]
Puritans wanted to do away with
godparents
, who made
baptismal vows
on behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making the
sign of the cross
in baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied the sacrament contributed to salvation.
Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic (
transubstantiation
) and Lutheran (
sacramental union
) teachings that Christ is physically present in the
bread
and
wine
of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine of
real spiritual presence
, believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement with
Thomas Cranmer
, the Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink".
They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied
adoration of the Eucharist
, a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised the Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and better
church discipline
to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament.
Puritans did not believe
confirmation
was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have the time to examine them properly.
The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride "with my body I thee worship", which Puritans considered
blasphemous
. In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground "in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as "we commit his body [etc.] believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment."
Puritans eliminated choral music and
musical instruments in their religious services
because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the
Psalms
was considered appropriate (see
Exclusive psalmody
).
Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of
Worcester Cathedral
in 1642.
[71]
Ecclesiology
[
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]
While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues of
ecclesiology
and church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether
established national churches
were scriptural.
On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters of
episcopal polity
,
presbyterian polity
and
congregational polity
.
The episcopalians (known as the
prelatical
party) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches.
They also supported the idea of having a
Book of Common Prayer
, but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching,
pastoral care
and Christian
discipline
within the Church of England.
Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of the
Church of Scotland
.
They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and
laity
(local
sessions
,
presbyteries
,
synods
, and ultimately a national
general assembly
).
During the
Interregnum
, the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. The
Westminster Assembly
proposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but the
Long Parliament
left implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy.
Congregationalists
or
Independents
believed in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be a congregation of "visible saints" (meaning those who had experienced conversion).
Members would be required to abide by a
church covenant
, in which they "pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth".
Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore, the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant.
Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. The
New England Congregationalists
were also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it no Christian church at all. These groups, such as the
Brownists
, would split from the established church and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions on
separation of church and state
and
believer's baptism
, becoming early
Baptists
.
Family life
[
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]
Based on Biblical portrayals of
Adam and Eve
, Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation.
Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority.
Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility.
Thomas Gataker
describes Puritan marriage as:
... together for a time as copartners in grace here, [that] they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter.
The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing.
With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands.
Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality.
In her poem titled "In Reference to her Children", poet
Anne Bradstreet
reflects on her role as a mother:
I had eight birds hatched in one nest; Four cocks there were, and hens the rest. I nursed them up with pain and care, Nor cost nor labour I did spare.
Bradstreet alludes to the
temporality
of motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home. While Puritans praised the obedience of young children, they also believed that, by separating children from their mothers at adolescence, children could better sustain a superior relationship with God.
A child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience. Girls carried the additional burden of Eve's corruption and were
catechised
separately from boys at adolescence. Boys' education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles, while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes. The pinnacle of achievement for children in Puritan society, however, occurred with the conversion process.
Puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child. Just as parents were expected to uphold Puritan religious values in the home, masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants. Older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury. African-American and Indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits.
Demonology and witch hunts
[
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]
Like most Christians in the
early modern period
, Puritans believed in the active existence of the
devil
and
demons
as evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women. There was also widespread belief in
witchcraft
and witches?persons in league with the devil. "Unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock, human disease, and hideous fits suffered by young and old" may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch.
Puritan pastors undertook
exorcisms
for
demonic possession
in some high-profile cases. Exorcist
John Darrell
was supported by
Arthur Hildersham
in the case of Thomas Darling.
Samuel Harsnett
, a sceptic on witchcraft and possession, attacked Darrell. However, Harsnett was in the minority, and many clergy, not only Puritans, believed in witchcraft and possession.
[87]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of people throughout Europe were accused of being witches and executed. In England and Colonial America, Puritans engaged in
witch hunts
as well. In the 1640s,
Matthew Hopkins
, the self-proclaimed "Witchfinder General", whose career flourished during Puritan rule, was responsible for accusing over two hundred people of witchcraft, mainly in
East Anglia
.
[88]
Between 1644 and 1647, Hopkins and his colleague
John Stearne
sent more accused people to the
gallows
than all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years.
[89]
In New England, few people were accused and convicted of witchcraft before 1692; there were at most sixteen convictions.
The
Salem witch trials
of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of the
Massachusetts colony
, Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time Governor
William Phips
ended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.
Millennialism
[
edit
]
Puritan
millennialism
has been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation of
biblical prophecy
, for which representative figures of the period were
Johannes Piscator
,
Thomas Brightman
,
Joseph Mede
,
Johannes Heinrich Alsted
, and
John Amos Comenius
.
Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological views on an
historicist
interpretation of the
Book of Revelation
and the
Book of Daniel
. Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases the world must pass through before the
Last Judgment
could occur and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase but eventually the church's enemies?the
Antichrist
(identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and the
Ottoman Empire
?would be defeated.
Based on
Revelation 20
, it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Christ on earth.
In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for "God's remote plans for the world and man", Puritans understood it to describe "the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin".
On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and the
Thirty Years' War
were interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism; Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before the
Second Coming
of Christ.
Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that the
conversion of the Jews
to Christianity was an important sign of the
apocalypse
.
Cultural consequences
[
edit
]
Some strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained.
Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal.
Anne Hutchinson
(1591?1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.
Education
[
edit
]
At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 per cent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy.
[101]
In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire a
grammar school
instructor to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort's
Boston Latin School
was the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts".
[102]
Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such as
Harvard
(founded in 1636) or
Yale
(founded in 1707).
Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases were sent to England or Scotland.
[103]
Puritan scientists
[
edit
]
The
Merton Thesis
is an argument about the nature of early
experimental science
proposed by
Robert K. Merton
. Similar to
Max Weber
's
famous claim
on the link between the
Protestant work ethic
and the
capitalist economy
, Merton argued for a similar positive
correlation
between the rise of English Puritanism, as well as German
Pietism
, and early experimental science.
[104]
As an example, seven of 10 nucleus members of the
Royal Society
were Puritans. In the year 1663, 62 per cent of the members of the Royal Society were similarly identified.
The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.
[106]
Behavioral regulations
[
edit
]
Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life.
Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration of
Christmas
,
Easter
and
Whitsuntide
.
Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of
popery
" or the "rags of
the Beast
".
[110]
They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers).
During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang
carols
in secret.
[112]
Following
the restoration
in 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England.
[112]
Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659.
The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor
Edmund Andros
, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights.
Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
[114]
Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including the
branding iron
, the
whipping post
, the
bilboes
and the
hangman's noose
.
[115]
Swearing and blasphemy were illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy?defined as "a cursing of God by atheism, or the like"?punishable by death.
[116]
Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of the
Sabbath
.
In an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans,
James I
's
Book of Sports
(1618) permitted Christians to play football every Sunday afternoon after worship.
[117]
When the Puritans established themselves in power, football was among the sports that were banned: boys caught playing on Sunday could be prosecuted.
Football was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.
Other forms of leisure and entertainment were completely forbidden on moral grounds. For example, Puritans were universally opposed to
blood sports
such as
bearbaiting
and
cockfighting
because they involved unnecessary injury to God's creatures. For similar reasons, they also opposed
boxing
.
These sports were illegal in England during Puritan rule.
While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing and
gambling
were banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women?which Mather condemned as "promiscuous dancing"?because it was thought to lead to
fornication
.
Folk dance
that did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate.
The
branle
dance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted.
[122]
In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.
Puritans condemned the
sexualization
of the
theatre
and its associations with depravity and prostitution?London's theatres were located on the south side of the
Thames
, which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre was
William Prynne
's book
Histriomastix
which marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the "sin" of dramatic performance. Puritan authorities
shut down English theatres
in the 1640s and 1650s?Shakespeare's
Globe Theatre
was demolished?and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies.
In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titled
The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses
.
[125]
With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre,
Drury Lane
in the
West End
, opened in 1663.
[126]
[127]
Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation.
However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America.
Laws in
Massachusetts
in 1634 banned the "abominable" practice of individuals
toasting
each other's health.
[129]
William Prynne
, the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject,
Health's Sicknesse
(1628), that "this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself."
[129]
In 1649, English colonist
William Pynchon
, the founder of
Springfield
, Massachusetts, wrote a critique of Puritanical Calvinism, entitled
The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption
. Published in London in 1650, when the book reached Boston it was immediately burned on
Boston Common
and the colony pressed Pynchon to return to England which he did.
[130]
The censorious nature of the Puritans and the region they inhabited would lead to the phrase "
banned in Boston
" being coined in the late 19th century, a phrase which was applied to Boston up to the mid-20th century.
[131]
Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God.
[132]
Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with
1 Corinthians 7
and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities.
Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence.
Puritans publicly punished drunkenness and
sexual relations outside marriage
.
Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated.
Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed.
While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin.
[135]
Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death"
and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery.
[137]
Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality.
[135]
Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom".
Religious toleration
[
edit
]
Puritan rule in England was marked by limited religious toleration. The
Toleration Act
of 1650 repealed the
Act of Supremacy
,
Act of Uniformity
, and all laws making
recusancy
a crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.
The 1653
Instrument of Government
guaranteed that in matters of religion "none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation". Religious freedom was given to "all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ".
However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion during
the Protectorate
.
In London, those attending Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet.
Quakers were allowed to publish freely and hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organising
tithe
-strikes against the state church.
In New England, where Congregationalism was the official religion, the Puritans exhibited intolerance of other religious views, including
Quaker
,
Anglican
and
Baptist
theologies. The Puritans of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony
were the most active of the New England persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was shared by the
Plymouth Colony
and the colonies along the
Connecticut river
.
[143]
Four Quakers, known as the
Boston martyrs
, were executed. The first two of the four Boston martyrs were executed by the Puritans on 27 October 1659, and in memory of this, 27 October is now
International Religious Freedom Day
to recognise the importance of freedom of religion.
[144]
In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was English Quaker
Mary Dyer
, who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony.
[143]
The hanging of Dyer on Boston Common marked the beginning of the end of the Puritan
theocracy
.
[145]
In 1661,
King Charles II
explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.
[145]
In 1684, England
revoked the Massachusetts charter
, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad
Toleration Act
.
[145]
Anti-Catholic
sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers.
[146]
In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any
Jesuit Roman Catholic
priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction.
[147]
Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty.
[148]
Historiography
[
edit
]
Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such as
Perry Miller
have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation of
modernity
itself, from England's
Scientific Revolution
to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century,
Max Weber
argued in
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
that Calvinist self-denial resulted in a
Protestant work ethic
that nurtured the development of
capitalism
in Europe and North America. Puritan authors such as
John Milton
,
John Bunyan
,
Anne Bradstreet
and
Edward Taylor
continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.
A debate continues on the definition of "Puritanism".
English historian
Patrick Collinson
argues that "There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship."
[151]
Puritanism "was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory."
[152]
Historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.
The analysis of "mainstream Puritanism" in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist and
antinomian
groups that did not flourish, and others that continue to this day, such as
Baptists
and
Quakers
, can suffer in this way. The national context (England and Wales, as well as the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland) frames the definition of Puritans, but was not a self-identification for those Protestants who saw the progress of the
Thirty Years' War
from 1620 as directly bearing on their denomination, and as a continuation of the religious wars of the previous century, carried on by the English Civil Wars. English historian
Christopher Hill
writes of the 1630s, old church lands, and the accusations that
William Laud
was a crypto-Catholic:
To the heightened Puritan imagination it seemed that, all over Europe, the lamps were going out: the
Counter-Reformation
was winning back property for the
church
as well as souls: and Charles I and his government, if not allied to the forces of the Counter-Reformation, at least appeared to have set themselves identical economic and political objectives.
[153]
Notable Puritans
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Miller 2008
, p. 296: "Congregationalists were theologically descended directly from the Puritans of England and consequently enjoyed pride of place as one of the oldest, most numerous, and most significant religious groups in the colonies."
- ^
Morris, John W. (2011).
The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History
. Author House. p. 438.
- ^
The A to Z of the Puritans
. Scarecrow Press. 2008. p. 250.
- ^
Trickler, C. Jack (2010).
A Layman's Guide To: Why Are There So Many Christian Denominations?
. Author House. p. 146.
ISBN
978-1-4490-4578-4
.
Archived
from the original on 18 July 2013
. Retrieved
4 November
2012
– via
Google Books
.
- ^
Mencken, H. L.
(1916).
A Book of Burlesques
.
Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy
- ^
Hagberg, Garry L. (2018).
Stanley Cavell on Aesthetic Understanding
. Springer. p. 125.
- ^
Fitzpatrick, Vincent (2004).
H. L. Mencken
.
Mercer University Press
. p. 37.
- ^
Neil, Daniel (1844).
The History of the Puritans, Or Protestant Noncomformists: From the Reformation in 1517, to the Revolution in 1688; Comprising an Account of Their Principles; Their Attempts for a Farther Reformation in the Church; Their Sufferings; and the Lives and Characters of Their Most Considerable Divines
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a
b
Lee, Sidney
, ed. (1897).
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.
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- ^
"
The Puritans: A Sourcebook of Their Writings
Archived
16 January 2010 at the
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". Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson.
- ^
"
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- ^
Bremer, Francis J. (1995).
The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards
.
- ^
Osgood, Herbert L. (7 August 1891).
"The Political Ideas of the Puritans"
.
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2139228
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.
- ^
McCullough, David (22 May 2001).
John Adams
. New York:
Simon & Schuster
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ISBN
0-684-81363-7
.
- ^
Copeland, David A. (2000).
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ISBN
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- ^
Burns, Eric (2006).
Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism
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Wroth, Lawrence C. (1965).
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ISBN
0-486-28294-5
.
- ^
Rudolph, Frederick (1961).
The American College and University
.
University of Georgia Press
. p. 3.
ISBN
0-8203-1285-1
.
- ^
Beeke & Jones 2012
, "Regeneration and Baptism",
Amazon Kindle
location 18043?18056.
- ^
"Worcester Cathedral welcomes you to their Website"
. Worcestercathedral.co.uk. 20 February 2010.
Archived
from the original on 23 August 2010
. Retrieved
21 August
2010
.
- ^
"Scott, Reginald"
.
Dictionary of National Biography
. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885?1900.
- ^
Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959). "Hopkins, Matthew".
The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology
. New York: Crown Publishers.
- ^
Notestein, Wallace
(1911).
A History of Witchcraft In England from 1558 to 1718
. American Historical Association 1911 (reissued 1965) New York
Russell & Russell
. p. 195.
- ^
Axtell, James (1976).
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.
- ^
"BLS History"
.
Archived
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. Retrieved
13 November
2020
.
- ^
Marshall, Peter James (2005).
The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and the United States C. 1750?1783
. Oxford University Press. p. 30.
ISBN
978-0199278954
.
Archived
from the original on 4 April 2023
. Retrieved
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2018
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.
- ^
Sztompka, 2003
- ^
Cohen, 1990
- ^
Durston, Chris (December 1985).
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.
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the original
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a
b
"When Christmas carols were banned"
. BBC.
Archived
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. Retrieved
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2022
.
- ^
Marling, Karal Ann (2000).
Merry Christmas!: Celebrating America's Greatest Holiday
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ISBN
978-0-674-00318-7
.
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2020
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.
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Merrill, Louis Taylor (1945).
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.
10
(6). American Sociological Association: 766?776.
doi
:
10.2307/2085847
.
JSTOR
2085847
.
Archived
from the original on 10 March 2022
. Retrieved
10 March
2022
.
- ^
Williams Levy, Leonard (1995).
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. UNC Press Books. p. 242.
- ^
Campbell, John Campbell Baron (1851).
John Lord Campbell,
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, vol. 2, 1851, p. 412
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. Retrieved
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Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2016).
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.
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"London's 10 oldest theatres"
.
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. Retrieved
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.
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"From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered"
.
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.
Archived
from the original on 31 December 2020
. Retrieved
17 December
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.
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a
b
"Cheers: Celebration Drinking Is an Ancient Tradition"
.
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. Archived from
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on 12 March 2022
. Retrieved
12 March
2022
.
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"Springfield's 375th: From Puritans to presidents"
. MassLive.com. 9 May 2011.
Archived
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Miller, Neil (13 October 2010).
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.
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. Retrieved
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2023
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- ^
Lewis (1969
, pp. 116?117): "On many questions and specially in view of the marriage bed, the Puritans were the indulgent party, ... they were much more
Chestertonian
than their adversaries [the Roman Catholics]. The idea that a Puritan was a repressed and repressive person would have astonished Sir
Thomas More
and
Luther
about equally."
- ^
a
b
Crandell 1997
, p. 20.
sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrandell1997 (
help
)
- ^
Chicago Whispers: A History of LGBT Chicago before Stonewall
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a
b
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pp. 1?2. BiblioBazaar, LLC
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Post Abbott, Margery (2011).
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.
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Pat, Perrin (1 January 1970).
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. Discovery Enterprises. p. 24.
- ^
Mahoney, Kathleen A. (10 September 2003).
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.
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- ^
Spurr (1998
, p. 4) cites and quotes
Collinson (1988
, p. 143)
- ^
Spurr (1998
, p. 27) cites and quotes
Patrick Collinson
, "Fundamental Objections",
Times Literary Supplement
(17?23 February 1989), p. 156.
- ^
Hill, Christopher
(1971).
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. p. 337.
Sources
[
edit
]
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The Contribution of British Writers Between 1560 and 1830 to the Interpretation of Revelation 13.16?18
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.
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Anne Hutchinson: Troubler of the Puritan Zion
. R.E. Krieger Pub. Co.
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Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction
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"New England's Puritan Century: Three Generations of Continuity in the City upon a Hill"
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. Retrieved
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2022
.
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The Cambridge Companion to Puritanism
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(1987),
The Story of Liberty: So You Will Comprehend What Liberty Has Cost, and What It Is Worth
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(1988).
The Birthpangs of Protestant England: Religious and Cultural Change in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
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. Retrieved
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, Cambridge Companions to Religion, Cambridge University Press, pp. 34?47,
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A Little Commonwealth; Family Life in Plymouth Colony
. New York: Oxford University Press.
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(1989).
Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America
. Oxford University Press.
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(1984).
The Bourgeois Experience: The Tender Passion
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The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution
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Paradise Postponed: Johann Heinrich Alsted and the Birth of Calvinist Millenarianism
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The Literary Culture of Nonconformity in Later Seventeenth-Century England
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Godly Rule: Politics and Religion 1603?60
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The Application of the Faith of the Westminster Assembly in the Ministry of the Welsh Puritan, Vavasor Powell (1617?1670)
(PhD). University of Wales.
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Separated by Their Sex: Women in Public and Private in the Colonial Atlantic World
. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
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The Holy Spirit in Puritan Faith and Experience
. University of Chicago Press. p.
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John Foxe and the Elizabethan Church
. Berkeley, University of California Press.
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Female Piety in Puritan New England the Emergence of Religious Humanism
. New York: Oxford University Press.
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. New York: Hill and Wang.
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. Studies in Modern British Religious History. Vol. 6. Boydell Press.
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English Puritanism, 1603?1689
. Social History in Perspective. Palgrave MacMillan.
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.
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"Vertuous Women Found: New England Ministerial Literature, 1668?1735"
(PDF)
.
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28
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.
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.
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Drinking with Calvin and Luther!
. Oakdown Books.
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.
- White, James F. (1999).
The Sacraments in Protestant Practice and Faith
.
Abingdon Press
.
ISBN
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.
Further reading
[
edit
]
Look up
puritans
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Puritans
.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Puritanism
.
- Bremer, Francis J.
Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
- Eicholz, Hans (2008).
"Puritanism"
. In
Hamowy, Ronald
(ed.).
The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage
;
Cato Institute
. pp. 407?408.
ISBN
978-1412965804
.
OCLC
750831024
.
- Giussani, Luigi.
American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch
. McGill-Queens UP (2013).
- Hall, David D. (2019).
The Puritans: A Transatlantic History
. Princeton University Press.
H-Net online review
.
- Neuman, Meredith Marie (2013).
Jeremiah's Scribes: Creating Sermon Literature in Puritan New England.
Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Winship, Michael P. (2018).
Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America
. Yale University Press.
Puritan works
[
edit
]