Form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic
Investigative journalism
is a form of
journalism
in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, racial injustice,
political corruption
, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report. Practitioners sometimes use the terms "watchdog reporting" or "accountability reporting".
Most investigative journalism has traditionally been conducted by newspapers,
wire services
, and
freelance
journalists. With the decline in income through advertising, many traditional news services have struggled to fund investigative journalism, due to it being very time-consuming and expensive. Journalistic investigations are increasingly carried out by news organizations working together, even internationally (as in the case of the
Panama Papers
and
Paradise Papers
), or by
nonprofit outlets
such as
ProPublica
, which rely on the support of the public and benefactors to fund their work.
Definitions
[
edit
]
University of Missouri
journalism professor Steve Weinberg defined investigative journalism as: "Reporting, through one's own initiative and work product, matters of importance to readers, viewers, or listeners."
[1]
In many cases, the subjects of the reporting wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed. There are currently university departments for teaching investigative journalism. Conferences are conducted presenting peer-reviewed research into investigative journalism.
[2]
British media theorist
Hugo de Burgh
(2000) states that: "An investigative journalist is a man or woman whose profession is to discover the truth and to identify lapses from it in whatever media may be available. The act of doing this generally is called investigative journalism and is distinct from apparently similar work done by police, lawyers, auditors, and regulatory bodies in that it is not limited as to target, not legally founded and closely connected to publicity."
[3]
History
[
edit
]
Early newspapers in British colonial America were often suppressed by the authorities for their investigative journalism. Examples include
Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick
and Benjamin Franklin's
New England Courant
. Journalists who reported on the doings of the British authorities would later contribute to revolutionary sentiment in the run-up to the
American Revolution
; one prominent example was the
Boston Gazette
, contributed to by
Samuel Adams
among others.
[4]
American journalism textbooks point out that
muckraking
standards promoted by
McClure's Magazine
around 1902, "Have become integral to the character of modern investigative journalism."
[5]
Furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers continued to inspire journalists.
[6]
[7]
The outlook for investigative journalism in the United States was improved by the 1960s with the
Freedom of Information Act
and
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan
. The invention of the
photocopier
also offered an assistive tool to
whistleblowers
.
[4]
The growth of
media conglomerates
in the U.S. since the 1980s has been accompanied by massive cuts in the budgets for investigative journalism. A 2002 study concluded "that investigative journalism has all but disappeared from the nation's commercial airwaves."
[8]
Non-commercial journalism
has increasingly stepped-up to work on this growing need for in-depth investigations and reporting. One of the largest teams of investigative journalists is the Washington-based
International Consortium of Investigative Journalists
(ICIJ) launched in 1997 by the
Center for Public Integrity
[9]
which includes 165 investigative reporters in over 65 countries
[10]
working collaboratively on crime, corruption, and abuse of power at a global level,
[10]
under
Gerard Ryle
as Director.
[11]
Working with major media outlets globally, they have exposed organised crime, international tobacco companies, private military cartels, asbestos companies, climate change lobbyists, details of
Iraq
and
Afghanistan
war contracts, and most recently the
Panama Papers
[10]
and
Paradise Papers
.
[12]
[13]
[14]
The investigative Commons center opened in
Berlin
, Germany in 2021 and houses the
European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights
,
Forensic Architecture
, and
Bellingcat
.
[15]
Tools
[
edit
]
An investigative reporter may make use of one or more of these tools, among others, on a single story:
- Analysis of documents, such as
lawsuits
and other
legal documents
, tax records, government reports, regulatory reports, and corporate financial filings.
[16]
- Databases of public records.
[17]
[4]
- Investigation of technical issues, including scrutiny of government and business practices and their effects.
- Research into social and legal issues.
- Subscription research sources such as
LexisNexis
.
[18]
- Numerous interviews with on-the-record sources as well as, in some instances, interviews with
anonymous sources
(for example whistleblowers).
[4]
- Federal or state
Freedom of Information Acts
to obtain documents and data from government agencies.
- OSINT
(Open-Source Intelligence) databases and tools that contain free and open resources that anybody can use.
Examples
[
edit
]
- Julius Chambers
of the
New-York Tribune
had himself committed to the
Bloomingdale Asylum
in 1872, and his account led to the release of twelve patients who were not mentally ill, a reorganization of the staff and administration, and eventually to a change in the lunacy laws;
[19]
this later led to the publication of the book
A Mad World and Its Inhabitants
(1876).
- Ida B. Wells-Barnett
's 1892
Southern Horrors
documented lynching in the United States, exposing in the pages of black-owned newspapers as a campaign of oppression and intimidation against African Americans. A white mob destroyed her newspaper press and office in retaliation for her reporting.
[20]
- Ida Tarbell
's 1904 book,
The History of the Standard Oil Company
, exposed the nefarious practices and methods of the monopoly of the company, and led to its dismantling.
[21]
- Upton Sinclair
's 1905 book
The Jungle
exposed unsanitary conditions in American meatpacking plants, and led to the creation of the
Food and Drug Administration
.
- Nellie Bly
, a pseudonym used by Elizabeth Cochrane Seaman in the late 19th century, famously feigned insanity as part of her 1887
undercover investigation
into and subsequent expose regarding the inner-workings of the
Women's Lunatic Asylum
in New York City. Published to wide acclaim as a series of articles in the
New York World
which were later compiled and further detailed in her book
Ten Days in a Mad-House
, Bly's revelations led to both a grand jury investigation of the asylum and increased funding for the Department of Public Charities and Corrections.
[22]
- Between 1972?1974 Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered and exposed a variety of incriminating information regarding President Richard Nixon's 1968?1972 presidential campaign. The information exposed, prompted Nixon's resignation in 1974 and was then on recognized as the
Watergate scandal
.
[23]
- Bill Dedman
's 1988 investigation,
The Color of Money
,
[24]
for
The Atlanta Journal-Constitution
on
racial discrimination
by
mortgage
lenders in middle-income neighborhoods, received the 1989
Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting
and was an influential early example of computer-assisted reporting or
database journalism
.
[25]
- Brian Deer
's British press award-winning investigation for
The Sunday Times
of London into the worldwide
MMR vaccine controversy
which revealed that research, published by
The Lancet
, associating the children's vaccine with autism was fraudulent.
[26]
[27]
[28]
- The Daily Telegraph
investigated claims that various British Members of Parliament had been filing dubious and frivolous expenses claims, and had done for many years in secret. The House of Commons Authority initially tried to block the release of the information, but the expenses were leaked to the
Telegraph
. The newspaper then released pieces of information which dominated the news for weeks and caused considerable anger in the UK.
[29]
- John M. Crewdson
of the
Chicago Tribune
wrote a 1996 article
[30]
proposing the installment of
defibrillators
on American airliners. Crewdson argued that based on his research and analysis, "Medical kits and defibrillators would be economically justified if they saved just 3 lives each year." Soon after the article's publication, airlines began installing defibrillators on planes, and the devices began to show up in airports and other public spaces. Ten years after installing defibrillators,
American Airlines
reported that 80 lives had been saved by the machines.
[31]
- Project Censored
regularly investigates stories which have gone undercovered by other outlets.
- Hopewell Chin'ono
, the award-winning Zimbabwean journalist who investigated and exposed the Covid-gate scandal in Zimbabwe in June 2020. US$60 million was siphoned to a shadowy company called Drax that is linked to President
Emmerson Mnangagwa
. The exposure resulted in the dismissal and arrest of Health Minister Obbidiah Moyo. Hopewell Chin'ono was arrested on flimsy charges in an apparent attempt to silence him.
[32]
Awards
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Organizations, Publications and People
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Weinberg, Steve (1996).
The Reporter's Handbook: An Investigator's Guide To Documents and Techniques
. St. Martin's Press.
ISBN
978-0-312-13596-6
.
- ^
"The Global Media Defence Fund Backs the Largest-Ever Investigative Journalism Conference"
.
Unesco
. 29 September 2023.
- ^
de Burgh, Hugo, ed. (2000).
Investigative Journalism: Context and Practice
. London and New York: Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-19054-1
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Sterling, Christopher H.
, ed. (2009). "Investigative Journalism".
Encyclopedia of Journalism
. Vol. 2. SAGE Publications. pp. 788?794.
ISBN
978-0-7619-2957-4
.
- ^
Sloan, W. David; Parcell, Lisa Mullikin (2002).
American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices
. McFarland. pp. 211?213.
ISBN
978-0-7864-1371-3
.
- ^
Tichi, Cecelia (2013).
Exposes and Excess: Muckraking in America, 1900 / 2000
. University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN
978-0-8122-0375-2
.
- ^
Hess, Stephen (2013).
Whatever Happened to the Washington Reporters, 1978?2012
. Brookings Institution Press.
ISBN
978-0-8157-2540-4
.
- ^
McChesney, Robert W.
(2004).
The Problem of the Media: U.S. Communication Politics in the 21st century
. Monthly Review Press. p.
81
.
ISBN
978-1-58367-105-4
.
, citing
Just, Marion; Levine, Rosalind; Regan, Kathleen (November?December 2002),
"Investigative Journalism Despite the Odds"
,
Columbia Journalism Review
: 103ff
- ^
Vasilyeva, Natalya; Anderson, Mae (3 April 2016).
"News Group Claims Huge Trove of Data on Offshore Accounts"
.
The New York Times
.
Associated Press
. Retrieved
4 April
2016
.
- ^
a
b
c
"About the ICIJ"
. The Center for Public Integrity
. Retrieved
10 February
2015
.
- ^
"Gerard Ryle"
. Center for Public Integrity.
- ^
Fitzgibbon, Will; et al. (5 November 2017).
"The 1 Percent- Offshore Trove Exposes Trump-Russia Links And Piggy Banks of the Wealthiest 1 Percent ? A new leak of confidential records reveals the financial hideaways of iconic brands and power brokers across the political spectrum"
.
International Consortium of Investigative Journalists
. Retrieved
6 November
2017
.
- ^
Grandoni, Dino (6 November 2017).
"Analysis | The Energy 202: What you need to know about Wilbur Ross and the Paradise Papers"
.
The Washington Post
.
ISSN
0190-8286
. Retrieved
6 November
2017
.
- ^
Disis, Jackie Wattles and Jill (6 November 2017).
"Paradise Papers: What you need to know"
.
CNNMoney
.
- ^
Oltermann, Philip (27 June 2021).
"Berlin's no 1 digital detective agency is on the trail of human rights abusers"
.
The Guardian
. London, United Kingdom.
ISSN
0261-3077
. Retrieved
28 June
2021
.
- ^
Hahn, Oliver (2018).
Digital Investigative Journalism
. Springer International Publishing. pp. 145?146.
- ^
"10 tools for investigative journalists"
.
International Journalists' Network
. Retrieved
26 June
2023
.
- ^
eInvestigator.com, Michael Kissiah (22 June 2022).
"LexisNexis Solutions for Law Enforcement and Investigators"
.
Private Investigator and Investigation Resources
. Retrieved
26 June
2023
.
- ^
"A New Hospital for the Insane".
Brooklyn Daily Eagle
. December 1876.
- ^
"Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Anti-lynching and the White House"
.
WHHA (en-US)
. Retrieved
15 April
2024
.
- ^
"Ida Tarbell: The Woman Who Took On Standard Oil - Connecticut History | a CTHumanities Project"
.
Connecticut History | a CTHumanities Project - Stories about the people, traditions, innovations, and events that make up Connecticut's rich history
. 6 January 2022
. Retrieved
15 April
2024
.
- ^
Paranick, Amber (8 November 2022).
"
"Behind Asylum Bars:" Nellie Bly Reporting from Blackwell's Island. | Headlines & Heroes"
.
The Library of Congress
. Retrieved
15 April
2024
.
- ^
Elving, Ron (16 June 2022).
"In new edition of classic Watergate expose, Woodward and Bernstein link Nixon, Trump"
.
NPR
.
- ^
Dedman, Bill (1989).
"The Color of Money"
.
Power Reporting
.
- ^
"Bill Dedman of The Atlanta Journal and Constitution"
.
www.pulitzer.org
.
- ^
Godlee, F.
; Smith, J.; Marcovitch, H. (5 January 2011).
"Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent"
.
BMJ
.
342
: c7452.
doi
:
10.1136/bmj.c7452
.
ISSN
0959-8138
.
PMID
21209060
.
S2CID
43640126
.
- ^
Ziv, Stav (10 February 2015).
"Andrew Wakefield, Father of the Anti-Vaccine Movement, Responds to the Current Measles Outbreak for the First Time"
.
Newsweek
. New York
. Retrieved
19 February
2015
.
- ^
Boseley, Sarah (2 February 2010).
"Lancet retracts 'utterly false' MMR paper"
.
The Guardian
. London
. Retrieved
14 January
2015
.
- ^
"Exclusive: the real story of the MPs' expenses scandal"
.
The Telegraph
. 7 May 2019.
ISSN
0307-1235
. Retrieved
15 April
2024
.
- ^
Crewdson, John (30 June 1996).
"Cardiac Arrest at 37,000 Feet"
.
Chicago Tribune
.
- ^
Kovach, Bill; Rosenstiel, Tom (2010).
Blur: How to Know What's True in the Age of Information Overload
. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp.
58?60
.
ISBN
978-1-60819-302-8
.
- ^
Muchena, Deprose (20 July 2020).
"Zimbabwe: Authorities continue their crackdown on dissent with arrest of investigative journalist and activist"
.
Amnesty International
. Retrieved
4 January
2021
.
Zimbabwean authorities must stop misusing the criminal justice system to persecute journalists and activists who are simply exercising their right to freedom of expression and peaceful assembly. The authorities must stop using the police and courts to silence dissent.
Further reading
[
edit
]
| This section needs to be
updated
. The reason given is: Add some more recent sources than 2010.
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
(
March 2024
)
|
- "How to expose corruption, vice and incompetence ? by those who have"
.
The Guardian
. 14 October 2021.
An article by six investigative journalists on the situation of investigative journalism in the UK.
- Harber, Anton; Renn, Margaret, eds. (2010).
Troublemakers: The Best of South Africa's Investigative Journalism
. Auckland Park, South Africa: Jacana Media.
ISBN
9781770098930
.
OCLC
794905854
.
- Video of the 2010 Logan Symposium at
University of California Berkeley
's
"Consequences of Investigative Reporting"
panel, in which reporters from the
Sahara Reporters
, the
Medill Innocence Project
at
Northwestern
,
The Washington Post
,
The Las Vegas Review-Journal
, and
The El Paso Times
talk about the dangers investigative reporters face; their experiences range from threat to life and limb for reporting on corruption in Africa, to subpoenas aimed at a journalism professor and his students for attempting to bring to light a miscarriage of justice; a Pulitzer Prize winner describes reporting on national security as her sources face internal inquisitions; a veteran reporter in Las Vegas talks about taking on casino moguls and organized crime; while a reporter covering the Mexican border explains how she has survived the violent reality of the undeclared war on our border, April 2010
- "Current State of Investigative Reporting"
, talk by
Seymour Hersh
at
Boston University
, 19 May 2009
- Tell Me No Lies: Investigative Journalism That Changed the World
,
John Pilger
, ed. (paperback) 2005.
External links
[
edit
]
This audio file
was created from a revision of this article dated 12 March 2010
(
2010-03-12
)
, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
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