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ערך מומלץ
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??????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????????? ??? ??? .

? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? . ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????. ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? . ?? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ????, ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????, ?? ?????? ? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????.

????? ????? ? ?????: ???? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ? ????? , ???? ?????: ????? ??? ? ????????? , ???? ?????: ?????? ??? ??? ???????

????? ???????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ? ?? ????? . ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? : ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ? ??????? ? ????? ????? ???? ?????, ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????. ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ? ????????? ?????????? ???. ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ? ???? ???? ? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????. [1] ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ????????, ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????, ????? ???? ? ?????? , ????? ????, ????? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????.

??????, ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????, ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????. ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????, ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?????, ?????? ??? ?? ???? . ????? ??????, ???????? ?? ??? ????, ?????? ??????? ???? , ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????. ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? , ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???.

??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????, ????? ??????? . ?????, ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? (???? ?????? ?? ?????) ?? ????? ???? ??????, ????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????, ?????? ?? ??? ???? ? ????????? ? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????.

????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ?????:
1. ?? ??? ?? ????
2. ???????
3. ????? ???? ????
4. ????? ????
5. ??? ?? ???
6. ??? ??? ???? 		7. ???? ?????
8. ???? ????
9. ???? ???
10. ???? ??? ?????
11. ??? ???
12. ?? ?????

???? ?????? ????? ????? ??, ??? ????? ???? ???????? (??? ?? ?????) ??????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ? ??? ??? . ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????, ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????. ?????? ???? ?? ? ??? ? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ?? ???? ????. ????? ?? ????? ??????, ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????, ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???. ????? ??, ?????? ??????? ???, ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????. ???????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????, ?????? ????? ??, ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????. ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ????.

????? ????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????, ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????, ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????. ????????? ????? ?????? ??????:

??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? . ????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ?????? , ?????? ????? ? ?? ? ????????? , ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ? ????? ????? ????????? ???????? . ???? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????, ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????.

????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??????, ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???. ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????, ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????, ??? ????. ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????, ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ? ?????? . ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????, ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?????-????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????, ???? ??? ?????? , ???? ???????? , ??? ???????? ?????-???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? . ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ????, ???? ?????? ???? ? ???? , ?????? ???????? ???? ??'??? ? ??? ? ?????? ????? .

???? ??????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? ?? ???? ? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ? ?'??? , 2008

????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? , ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? . ? ????? , ???? ??? ????, ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? , ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ? ???? ? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ????????? , ?? ? ?????? ???? ????-?????? ??????? ??? ? ????? ????? . ??????? ??? ??? ????? ? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????.

??? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????, ???? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ????????? ??????, ??????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ???. ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??????, ???? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????. ????? ??????? ??? ??-?? ????????? ??????? ?? ????????.

??????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? . ???????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??. [2] ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????:

  • ????? ? ?????, ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????, ????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????.
  • ?????? ? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ??, ????? ?? ????? ?????, ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????.
  • ???? ??????? ? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ???????. ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????.

?????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ???????, ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???????, ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????:

??????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ??????:
1. ???? ???
2. ????? ???
3. ???
4. ??? ???
5. ???????
6. ??? ??? 		7. ????? ??? ????
8. ????? ???????????
9. ???
10. ????? ????
11. ?? ?????
12. ????

??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? , [2] [3] ???? ??????, ??-?? ???, ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???. [2] [4] ??? ???? ? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????, [2] ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????, [2] ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????????? . ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? , ?? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ?? ???? ? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??????. [5] [6]

??????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????????:

  • ???? ??? (shield cone) ? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ???????, ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????. ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???????, ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???. ???? ??? ? ???????? : Skjaldbreiður, ???????? " ??? ???". [7]
  • ??? ??????????? (? ?????? : p?hoehoe ? "???? ? ??? ") ? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????. ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??????. [8]
  • ??? ?????, ???? (???????: a?a? ? ??? ????? ???? ????) ? ??? ????? ????? ????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????. ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???????. [8]
  • ??????? ??? ? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ??????. ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????. ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????, ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??????, ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????. [9]
???????
?????? ??????? [11]
  • ????? ( VEI ): ‏0-1
  • ???? ???? ???????: ?? 100 ?'
  • ??? ???? : ?? 10 5 ?"?
  • ??????: ?????

??????? ????????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ????????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???????
??????? ?????????????:
1. ???? ???
2. ?????
3. ??? ???
4. ????? ???
5. ????? ??????
6. ??? ??? 		7. ????? ??? ????
8. ????? ???????????
9. ???
10. ????? ????
11. ?? ?????
12. ????

??????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????????? , [2] ??? ?? ????? ????????? ? ?? ?????? , ???? ? ??????? ?? ?????? . ??? ??? ???? ?" ?????? ?? ??? ??????" ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????, ???? ?????? ????? ?? 10?20 ????, ???? 2,000 ????? ????????. ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????, [2] ?????, ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????, ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????. ????? ????? ???????? ?????, ????? ????? , ????? ?????? ????, ?????? ????? ?? ??? ????, ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ?????????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????.

???? ???????????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ???, ????? ????? ????, ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????. ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ??????. ???? ????? ? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????, ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ? ?????? ??????? ??????. [12]

?? ???, ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????. ???????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? 1930, ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????. ???????? ????, ???? 2002, ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???????. ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? 13,000 ???? ???? ?????-????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? . [13] ???? 2007 ????? ??? ????? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???. [14] ????? ?? ???? ??????????? ?? ??? ????? ??????.

????? "??????? ?????????????" ???? ?? ??? ? ????????? ? ?????? ?'???? ?????? (Giuseppe Mercalli), ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ? ????? ??????????? ?????? ?????. [15] ????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ? ???????? ??? ????? 1943 - 1952 ?? ?? ????? , [16] ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 1972.

?????? ??????? [11]
  • ????? ( VEI ): ‏1-2
  • ???? ???? ???????: 100 - 1,000 ?'
  • ??? ???? : 10 5 ?? 10 7 ?"?
  • ??????: ?????-??????

??????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ???????:
1. ???? ???
2. ?????
3. ????? ???
4. ??? ???
5. ????? ??????
6. ????? ??? 		7. ????? ??? ????
8. ????? ???????????
9. ???
10. ????? ????
11. ?? ?????
12. ????

??? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????? [2] ? ?? ???, ??? ?????????, ??? ? ????? ????????? . ????? "??????? ????????" ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ?'???? ??????. ????? 1888 - 1890 ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????, ??? ????? ????????? ???? ??????: "?????????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??????...", [17] ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??.

??????????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????, ?? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ? ????????? ??????-??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????. ??? ?? ?? ??????? ??????-?????? ???? "??????? ?????-???????". ????????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? (55% ?? ????) ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? , ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????. ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????, ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????, [2] ?????????? ??? ????. [2] ??? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????, ????? ????? ?????? ? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ??. ???????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? "???? ????-???" ? ????? ????? ?? 2?3 ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???. ???? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????: ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????, ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????. ???? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????, ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????. [18]

?????? ????? ??? ?-100 ??? ???? ????????? ??????. ????????? ??????? ???? ?-1888 ?????? 19 ??????. ????? ??? ????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ?????. [19]

?????? ??????? [11]
  • ????? ( VEI ): ‏2-3
  • ???? ???? ???????: 1 - 15 ?"?
  • ??? ???? : 10 6 ?? 10 8 ?"?
  • ??????: ??????-?????

??????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ??????:
1. ???? ???
2. ??? ???
3. ???? ?????
4. ????? ??????
5. ??? ????????? 		6. ????? ??? ????
7. ????? ???????????
8. ????? ????
9. ?? ?????
10. ????

??? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? . ???????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? , ?????? ???? ????? , ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? , ????? ?????????? ????????.

"??? ???", ???????? ?-1903

??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????????? ??????? ? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???. ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?????, ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ???. ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? . ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?? ??????????. ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????, ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????. [20]

???

?? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ? ????? ??????????? ???????. ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???? 1902 ????? ?? ???? ??-????. ???????? ?? ????? 30,000 ??? ???, ???? ??? ????. ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????????, ??? ??? ???? ? ????? . ???? ??? ??????? "??? ???" - ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? 100 - 150 ?' ?????? ?? ?-300 ?', ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????. [21]

???????????
??? ????? ???? ?? ???????????

????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????, ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????, ??? ????? ?? ??????????? (Santiaguito), ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ? ??????? . [22] ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???????? 1902 ??? ??? ??????????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????????. ??? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ?????? ???, ???? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?-500 ???. ????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ????? ? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???. ???????? ???? ?- 24 ???????? 1902, ????? ??????, ?????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ?? 5.5 ?"? ??????? ?? ?????. ????? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?? 273 ??? ??"? ????? ????? ???? ?? ? ?? ???????? , ???? ?-4,000 ?"? ????. ???????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????-????? ?? ???, ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? 300 ?'. ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????, ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????????, ??????? ??? ????? ????? 5,000 ??? ??? ????? ????????, ????? ?????? ??? ? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???. ???????? ?? 1902 ????? ???? ?????? ?????, ??-1922 ??? ??????? ??? ?????, ???? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? 1902 ?????. ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???????????, ???? 1922 ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????. ??? ??????? ?? ??????????? ?????, ?? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????????. [23]

?????? ??????? [11]
  • ????? ( VEI ): ‏3-5
  • ???? ???? ???????: 10 - 25 ?"?
  • ??? ???? : 10 7 ?? 10 9 ?"?
  • ??????: 10-100 ????

??????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ?????????:
1. ???? ???
2. ????? ????
3. ??? 		4. ????? ??? ????
5. ????? ???????????
6. ?? ?????
????? ?????? ?????? ????????

???? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???????:

  • ??????? ????????? ? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ????? , ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? 79 . [2]
  • ??????? ????????? ? ?? ??? ?? ?? ???? ????.

??????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????. ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????. [2] ??????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????, ??? ?? ??????? ??????. ???? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???? ????. ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ???? ???? , ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ???.

???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? , ?????????? ??????, ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ???, [2] ??? ??? [2] . ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? , ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ????. ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???? 79 ???? ?? ????? ?????? ? ????????? . [2] ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?????.

????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????, ?? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????, ?????? ??? ??????. ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ????, ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????????. ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ????? . ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????. [24]

??????? ???? ???? 79
??? ????? ? ??????? ?? ???? ???? (79)

????? 24 ??????? 79 ???? ?????? ??????? ?????, ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? , [2] ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ???????. ???? ?????? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? , ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????????. ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ???????, ??? ????? ?? ???.

???????? ???? ?????? ???, ????? ? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??. ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ? ????? ?????? ????-????, ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????, ??? ????? ???? ?????? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ? ?????? ???? ?????? . ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????. ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????????. ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?-150 ??"? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ?? 20 ?????. [25]

????????? ?????????? ??????
"??????? ????" ??? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? (Johan Christian Dahl)‏, 1826
?????? ??????? [11]
  • ????? ( VEI ): ‏5-8
  • ???? ???? ???????: ???? ?-25 ?"?
  • ??? ???? : 10 9 ?? 10 12 ?"?
  • ??????: 50-10,000 ????

??????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ???????:
1. ??? ?????
2. ????? ????
3. ????? ??? ????
4. ????? ??????????? 		5. ?? ????
6. ????????
7. ?? ?????
??????? ???????, ??? ???? 1980

??????? ??????????? (? ?????? ????? (φρ?αp) ? ????? ?? ??? ), [2] ?????? ?? ??????? ????????????? , ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?????? (??, ??? ?? ????? ). [2] ???? ??? ?? ????? (??? 600°C ?-C‏1,170°) ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????, ??????? ? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????, ???, ???, ????? ? ????? ?????? . ? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? 1980. [33] ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? . [34] ?- 1949 ???? ? ????????? ? ??????? ????? ?'??? (Thomas Jaggar) ?????? ?? ?"??????? ?????-????????". [35]

????????? ???????? ??????, ???? ???, ????? ????? ????? , ????? ?????? ????? ??? . [2] ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????, ????, ???? ?? ?????? . ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? . [36] ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??-????? ?? ???? ?????? . ?????? ???? ????? ? ??? ???????? ?????????, ????? ??? ?? ????. ?-1979 ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? 149 ????? ??? ?'???? , ??????? ??? ?????? ???????. [37]

?????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ? ??????? ??????? ?-1883, ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????, ????? ????? ??????. ??? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ?????????? ????????: ???? 1924 ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ?-8 ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???. [38] ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ? ????????? ?-1965, [39] ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ? ??? ?-1982. [40]

??????? ??????-?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ??? ? ??????
???? ??? ? ?????
??????? , ????? ???? ???? ??? ????????

??????? ??????-?????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????. [2] ????????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????, ?????? ????? ???? ????. ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ?? ???. ????? ???????? ????-??? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????, ??? ??? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ????. [41]

??????? ??????-?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ????:

  • ????? ??? ? ???? ????? ?? ????. ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???, ?????-??? ???? ???????. ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????, ?????? ? ?????????? (??? ?????) ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ????. ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????, ?????, ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ????. [42]
  • ????? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?????, ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????. ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????. ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? (????? ???? ????? ?????????) ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ?????. ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? . [43]
???????? ???????? ?? ????????
????? ??????? ? ???????? (?? ???) , ???????? ????????

???????? ??? ??????? , ??? ? ????? ?????????? ????? ??? ????? . ????? ???? ?-17 ????"? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???, ??????? ?????? VEI 6-7. ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? , ?????? ??? ? ????? ??????, ??? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? . ???????? ????? ?????????, ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????-???????. ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?-400 ???, ???? ????? ????? ? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???????. [44]

???????, 1991
??? ????? ? ???????

???????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ????????? , ???? ?-500 ??? ??? ??? ????, ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ? ????? ???? ?????? ?? 7.8 ? ???? ????? ? ????? ?-100 ?"? ??????-?????? ??? ????, ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????. ?????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? 1991, ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?????. ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???. ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????, ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??-?????? ??????? , ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???. ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????-???????. ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??????, ?????? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ? ????? ??????????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????. ??????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ?-34 ?"?. ? ?????? "?????" ????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????. ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?-VEI 6. [45]

??????? ??-???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ??-????:
1. ??? ?????
2. ???
3. ????? ???????????
4. ??? ??? 		5. ????? ????
6. ?? ?????
7. ????
8. ???? ????

??? ?????????? ??????? ? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ? ?????????? , ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??-??? ???? ????. ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??-????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???-????? ??????? ???? ? ????? ???? ????????? , ?????? ??-????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???. ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??-????? ???? ??? ???????, ?? ?????? ?????? ??-20 ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????, ???-2.5 ?"? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???. [46]

???? ????

?????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????. ????, ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????. ???? ?????? ?????????? ??-????? ???? ???? ??????. ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????. ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????, ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???. ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????????:

???????

???? 1650 ????? ? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???-??? ??????? (Kolumbo) ????? ????????? ?????? ??????-?????? ? ???????? . ????? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ?????????? ? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????????. ??????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? 10 ?' ???? ???? ???, ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? 150 ?"? ????. [49]

??????? ?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ??????????:
1. ??? ?????
2. ????? ???
3. ???
4. ???
5. ????? ??? ???? 		6. ????? ???????????
7. ????? ????
8. ?? ?????
9. ????

??????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????-?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ????, ?????? ?????? ????? ??????. [50] ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? "?????" ??? ???? (cupressoid ash), ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????, ???? ???? . ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ? ?????? , "??? ?? ???? " ? ? ????????? ??????? : ??, ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? (Muspelheim), ????? ?? ???? ???.

???????
??? ????? ? ???????

??????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ????? 1963?1967. ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??????: ???? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????; ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??????; ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? 80 ????????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? . ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ????, ?? ?? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? 130 ?' ? ?????? ??? , ????? ???? ?????-?????? . [51]

????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????

????? ?????? ???????? ????? 14 ??????? 1963 ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????. ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???. ??? ??? ???-?? ????? ?????????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????, ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ?????. ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?????, ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????. ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????, ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ?? 10 ?"?. ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??????, ???????? ?????? ????. ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ?????. ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????, ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???????. ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ?- 5 ????? 1967 . ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??????. ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ? ???? . [52]

??????? ??-??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ??-???????:
1. ??? ?????
2. ???
3. ???
4. ????? ??? ????
5. ????? ??????????? 		6. ??? ????
7. ????? ????
8. ?? ?????
9. ????
??? ???? ???? ???????? ???-??????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ( 2008 )

??????? ??-??????? ?????? ???? ? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ??? . ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ???????? ( ????? ????? ) ??????? ????, ??????? ??????? ??: ???? ???? ? ??????????? . [53]

???????????

????????? ??-???????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??-??? ????? ???? (tuya), ??? ??? ?????-???? . ???? ????? ????? ??-?? ? ?????????? ???? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????????? ????? ?? ???, ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???. ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?????. [54]

? ??????????? ?? ????????? ??-???????? ???? ????? ?? ????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????, ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?? 10 ?? ???. ?? ???, ??????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????, ??????????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????.

??????? ?????? ???????????

?????? 2008 ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????-???????? (BAS, British Antarctic Survey) ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ? ?????????? ???? 2,200 ???. [55] ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ??"? , ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? 10,000 ????? ????????. ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?????, ????? ??? ?? ?-25,000 ??"?, ????? ????? ??? ????? 12 ?"?. ??????? ???? ???? ????? 100 ?' ???? ????, ???????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ????????. [56]

?????????

????????? (Grimsvotn) ? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ??-?????? ????, ?????? ???? ???? ??? . ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? (Vatnajokull) ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????. ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??. ??? ??????????? ?? ????????? ?? ??-????????, ???????? ??? ?????? ???? 2011. ??????? ????? ????? ???? 1998, ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? . ???? ?? ??????? ??????? 1996, ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????, ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????, ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???. [57]

????????? ??-???????? ??????

??? ??????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??? ??????? ?????

??? ??????? ????? (Volcanic Explosivity Index ? VEI) ???? ???? 1982 ?? ??? ???????? ?????? (Chris Newhall) ??????? ???????? ???????? (USGS) ?? ?????? ????? ??? (Steve Self) ? ?????????? ????? ??-??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ??? . [64] ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ? ??? ? ??? ?????? ??? ? ????? , ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????, ???? ??? ????????, ????? ??????, ???? ????? ????? ????. [65]

???? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? , ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ? ????? ????????? : ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? 10 ??? ?? ?????? ??????. ????? ??, ??????? ?????? 6 ???? ???? ?? 10 ???????? ?????? 5.

???? ????? ???? 0 ? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ???? (???? ?-10 4 ????? ???????), ??????? ???? 8 ? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?-10 12 ????? ??????? ????? ???? ???????? ???? ?? 25 ?"?. ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????, ?? ?? ????? ????? 8 ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????. ??????: ??????? ??????? ????? 1991 ????? ?? ??? 6 ???? ???? ?????? ?-10 ?"? ??????? ?? ????, ????? ???? ???? ????? ?? 34 ?"? ???? ????????.

????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ??????. ?????????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????????, ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????. [66]

????? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ?? 10 ??? ??? ????, ??? ?????? 1 ?-2 ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? 100. ???, ????? ??-?????? ??????? ????? 1 ?-2 ????. ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? 100, ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? 10.

??? ??????? ?????
VEI ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????*
0 ?????? ????? ??? ??????? <100 ?' <10,000 ?"? (10 4 ?"?) ????? ????? ???? ????
1 ??????/????????????? ??????? ??? 100-1,000 ?' >10,000 ?"? (10 4 ?"?) ????? ????????? ????
2 ?????????????/??????? ??????? ??????? 1-5 ?"? >1,000,000 ?"? (10 6 ?"?) ?????? ?? ??? 3,477
3 ???????/?????? ??????? ??????? 3-15 ?"? >10,000,000 ?"? (10 7 ?"?) ????? ???? 868
4 ?????? ??????? ??? 10-25 ?"? >0.1 ?"? ????? (10 8 ?"?) ≥10 ???? ??? 278
5 ??????/????????? ??????? ??? >25 ?"? >1 ?"? ????? (10 9 ?"?) ≥50 ??? ??? ???? 84
6 ????????? ??????? ??? ???? >25 ?"? >10 ?"? ????? (10 10 ?"?) ≥100 ??? ??????? 39
7 ?????????/??????-????????? ??????? ??? ???? >25 ?"? >100 ?"? ????? (10 11 ?"?) ≥1,000 ??? ?????? 5 (+2 ???????)
8 ?????????/??????-????????? ???????-?? >25 ?"? >1,000 ?"? ????? (10 12 ?"?) ≥10,000 ??? ???? , ??????? 1

*????? ????????? ?-10,000 ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? 1994 ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ????'?????? .

?????? ????????? ?????? ???? 47 ????????? ????? 8 ?? ???? ?? ? ???????? ? ???????? , ??? 42 ?????? ?-36 ?????? ????? ????????. ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? 26,500 ??? ? ??? ????? , ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ?????? .

?????? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??????, ?? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????: ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???????, ??????, ??????-?? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ??????, ??? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ??????. ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????, ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????????. ?????, ??? VEI ???? ???-???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????.

????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ??? ???? ??? ? ?????
  • ??? ????? ????????? (Volcano Population Index - VPI) ? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ? ??????????? ?'?? ????? (John W. Ewert) ????????? ???? (Christopher J. Harpel) ??????? ???????? ???????? (USGS). [67] ???? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program - VDAP), ????? ????? ? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ?-80 ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ????????????.
????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? (VEI) ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? LandScan‏ [68] ? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??????. ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????-?????????, ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??-??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????.
??? VPI ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? VEI2 ?? VEI4 ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? VEI2 ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ? ???? , ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? 5 ?"?. ????????? ?????? VEI5 ??? ????????? ???? ?????? VEI4 ?????? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? 10 ?"? ?? ????. ?? ??, ???? VPI ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ????: 5 ?"? (VPI 5 ) ?-10 ?"? (VPI 10 ). ?????????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????, ????? ????? ?????? ?????. ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????: (VPI 5 ) ?(VPI 10 ), ???? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????.
???? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???. ?? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????, ??? ?????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??-???? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ????????, ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????. ???, ??????????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????????, ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ????. ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ? ?????? ??????.
  • ??? ????? ? ??? ????? ???? 1955 ?? ??? ? ?????? ????? ?' ????? (H. Tsuya) ????? ????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ? ???? . [69]
  • ??? ????? ? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?? ? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? . ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? - 1,000 - ???????? ?? ???? ????? ? ??????? ???? 1883, ???????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?-19 .

?????? ???????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ???? ?? ????

?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????. ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???. ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? , ??????????? ???? ??????? ??? ???, ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?-2 ?????? ????? ??????. ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ????, ????????? ???? 79 ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ????????? . ??? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????.

???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????. ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???. ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????, ?????????? ???? 1990 ?????? ????. ?? ???, ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? 1991 ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????-??? ????? ???????. ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? 1980 ?? ?????? ???, ?? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??.

??????? ????? ????? ? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????, ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ??????. ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ???? 1980. ????? ???? ????? ???? ?-8,000 ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? , ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????, ??? ?????-?? . [70] ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????.

????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ????: ???, ????? ?????? , ???? ?????? ? ??? ???? . ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???????-?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??. ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????:

  • ????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????. ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? 100 ??"?, ????? ??????? ??????, ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ? 700 ????? ??????. ???? 1902 ????? ???? ????????? 29,000 ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? . ?????, ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? - ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? - ????? ????? ??????????.
  • ????? ????????? ? ??? ????????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????. ?????? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? 350 ??"?.
???? ?????? ? ????
  • ?????? ? ????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????, ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ? ???? . ???? 1985 ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? 23,000 ??? ? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? .
  • ????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????. ?? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???????, ??????? ????? ????????. ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????, ???? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ????, ????????? ?? ???? ???????????????? ??????? ???? 2010 ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??????.
  • ????? ???????? - ???? ????, ??????? ?? ???? ?????? , ??????? ? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ??????. ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ????. ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? , ??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? , ????? ? ???? ?????? .

????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????, ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????:

?????? ???? ??? ????, ????? ?????? ???? ????????
  • ????? ???? ? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????. ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????, ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? . ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????, ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????.
  • ????? ?? ???? ? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? 1980 ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????.
  • ????? ????? ??? ? ??????? ?????? ????? ?- GPS ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ????, ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????.
  • ????? ???? ? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????.
  • ???????? ??? ???? ? ??? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????. ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????.
  • ?????? ???????? ? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????. ???? ????? ???? ????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ????, ????? ????????, ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????. ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ??????, ??? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????. ????: ????? ????? ? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ? ?????? , ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ???????.
  • ????? ???? ???? ? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?????. ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?????.

?? ???, ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ??????, ???????? ???????. ????? ???????????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????, ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????.

??? ?? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

ויקישיתוף ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ? ??????????

????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

  1. ^ Bowen's Reaction Series , James Madison University
  2. ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ??? ???????, ??? ?? ??? ?????? , ???? ???? ??????? , ‏9 ?????? 2019
  3. ^ Hawaiian Volcanism
  4. ^ Types of Volcanic Eruptions
  5. ^ Gordon Andrew, Macdonald, Agatin Townsend Abbott, Frank L. Peterson, Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii
  6. ^ HAWAIIAN ERUPTIONS
  7. ^ Volcanic Cones and Eruptions Lesson #8
  8. ^ 1 2 P?hoehoe and ?A?? Lava
  9. ^ Inside the Deep Caves Carved by Lava
  10. ^ Thermal areas on Kilauea and Mauna Loa Volcanoes, Hawaii
  11. ^ 1 2 3 4 5 ERUPTION VARIABILITY
  12. ^ Strombolian Eruptions
  13. ^ Tsunami generation in Stromboli island and impact on the south-east Tyrrhenian coasts
  14. ^ structural features of the 2007 stromboli eruption
  15. ^ Robin Gill, Igneous Rocks and Processes: A Practical Guide
  16. ^ Erebus volcano
  17. ^ Sizzling Sicily
  18. ^ Vulcanian eruption
  19. ^ Vulcano, Italy
  20. ^ Violent Earth
  21. ^ MT. PELEE ERUPTION
  22. ^ ???? ???? ????????????
  23. ^ Karola Starkloff, Santiaguito in Guatemala during the 20th century
  24. ^ PLINIAN ERUPTIONS
  25. ^ August 24, 79: An Hour-By-Hour Account Of Vesuvius' Eruption
  26. ^ Mount Mazama and Crater Lake: Growth and Destruction of a Cascade Volcano
  27. ^ ?????????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????? 1700-1400 ????"?
  28. ^ Mount Tarumae
  29. ^ Tambora
  30. ^ Will Krakatoa rock the world again?
  31. ^ Eruption of Mt Tarawera Eruption of Mt Tarawera
  32. ^ The 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Washington
  33. ^ What Is A Phreatic Eruption?
  34. ^ Violent Mud-Volcano Eruption Of Lake City Hot Springs, Northeastern California
  35. ^ Jaggar, Thomas Augustus, Jr.
  36. ^ Maars and Phreatic Eruptions
  37. ^ Dieng Volcanic Complex, central Java, Indonesia
  38. ^ The May 1924 Explosive Eruption of K?lauea
  39. ^ The September 28?30, 1965 eruption of Taal Volcano, Philippines
  40. ^ The Info List - Mount Tarumae
  41. ^ Haraldur Sigurdsson, Bruce Houghton, Hazel Rymer, John Stix, Steve McNutt, Encyclopedia of Volcanoes
  42. ^ Hydrovolcanic Landforms
  43. ^ Tuff Rings and Tuff Cones
  44. ^ Santorini Eruption Radiocarbon Dated to 1627-1600 B.C.
  45. ^ Overview of the Eruptions
  46. ^ Recent Submarine Volcanic Eruptions
  47. ^ Pillow lava
  48. ^ ??????? ?????-????????
  49. ^ Kolumbo volcano
  50. ^ A Surtseyan eruption
  51. ^ Surtsey, volcanic island, emerged in 1963
  52. ^ Surtsey, Iceland
  53. ^ Subglacial Volcano
  54. ^ Volcanic Landforms: What Is A Tuya?
  55. ^ ??????? ????? ???????????
  56. ^ ?? ?????? ???????? ??-??????? ??????????? ???? ????? ?- Antarctica: what would happen if all the volcanoes buried beneath the ice erupted?
  57. ^ Grimsvotn
  58. ^ Barðarbunga
  59. ^ Katla
  60. ^ Torfajokull
  61. ^ Lautaro
  62. ^ Sollipulli
  63. ^ Eyjafjallajokull
  64. ^ Newhall, Christopher G.; Self, Stephen (1982). "The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism" (PDF) . Journal of Geophysical Research . 87 (C2): 1231?1238. Bibcode : 1982JGR....87.1231N . doi : 10.1029/JC087iC02p01231 . ????? ?- ????? (PDF) ?- 13 ?????? 2013 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  65. ^ Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
  66. ^ "Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)" . Global Volcanism Program . Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History . ????? ?- ????? ?- 10 ??????? 2011 . ???? ?- 21 ??????? 2014 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  67. ^ ????? ?-Geotimes ?????? 2004
  68. ^ ??? ??????? LandScan
  69. ^ Volcanic Explosivity Index
  70. ^ ???? ????? , ?????? ?? ??????? ?????: ???? ???? ?????? , ???? ???? , 3 ????? 2008


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