??? 1950

??????? ????
??? ??	????? 20
????? ??????	Piero Portaluppi (en) ; ???????? ????????? ; Achille Castiglioni (en)
??????	??? 1950
????? ?????	1950
????? ????????	1959
???? ??? ?? ?????	1956 ; 1958 ; 1952

??? 1920 | ??? 1930 | ??? 1940 | ??? 1950 | ??? 1960 | ??? 1970 | ??? 1980

1950 | 1951 | 1952 | 1953 | 1954 | 1955 | 1956 | 1957 | 1958 | 1959

??? 1950 ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? 1 ????? ??? 1950 ?????? ?? 31 ?????? ??? 1959.

????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??????? (?? ?? ????? ??????????? ???????) ??????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??? 1960 .

????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????. ???? ??? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? 1 . ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? (??? ?? ?? ??-37 ???????? ?????-?????) ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?????. ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????. ??? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ??????.

??????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?????? [ ??? ]

????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ????????? ???????

????? ??????? (1950-1953) ?????? ??? ????? ?? 25 ????? ??? 1950 ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? 27 ????? ??? 1953. ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? (??????? ????? ??????????? ???????) ?????? ???????? (??????? ?????). ??? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??????. ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??? ????.
?? 15 ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? . ????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? (????? ????? ????????). ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??????. ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????. ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ??????. ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????. ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????. ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? 33742 ???? ??????? ?????? 92134 ???? ???? ????? ??? 80 ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???. ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?400 ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? 140 ??? ?????.

??? ?????? ???? ?? 1955. ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? 1956. ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ????? 1957. ???? ???? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??? 1958? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??????. ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?? 26 ?????? ??? 1959? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????????. ^[1]

?????? ?????? ?????????? (?? ????? ????? ???????)
???? ?????? (1956) ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? 1956. ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????. ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????. ???? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? (????? ?????????) ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? .
??? ??????? (1954 ? 1962) ??? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????.

???????? ???????? [ ??? ]

??? ?????? ????? ?????? . ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???????

?????? ??????? (1953-1959) ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????.
???? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ??????????? ?? ????? . ??? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????.
???? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? 1959 ??? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? . ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? 1994.
?????? ??????? 1956 ?? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????????? ? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????????. ????? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????. ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??????.
1951 - ?????? ????????? (??? ????? ??????) - ??????? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????????.

??? ????????? ?????? ????????? [ ??? ]

??? ????? ??????? ????????????? ????????? ???????. ????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????? . ??? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? 1956. ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? 1958? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? 1954. ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? . ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ???? . ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????.

??? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ??????????. ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? ?? ??? 1951? ????? ????? ????????? ?? 1954. ??? ??? 1956 ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? .

??????? ???????? ??????? [ ??? ]

????? ????????? ???????? : ????????? ????????? (?? ????? ????????)? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ? ????? ???????? ???? ?? 1957.
?? 1 ?????? ??? 1950? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ????????? . ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???. ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????. ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?????. ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? 1952 ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????.
?? 7 ????? 1950 ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????. ???? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ? ????? ?????? ?? 1948 ??? 1991. ???? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ? ????? ?? 9 ?????? 1955.
????? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? 1955? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????? .

???? [ ??? ]

???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????. ????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????????.
?? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? . ???? ??? ??????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? 1953? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????.
?? 1950-1953 ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? . ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? 1954? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????? . ??? ????? ???? 1954 ????? ????? ?? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? 1956. ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????.
???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? 1927 ??????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? 7 ???? 1950. ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????.

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????. ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????.
???? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ???? ?????? ????. ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? .
?? 1957 ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????????? . ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ? ??? ??????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? .

?????????? [ ??? ]

?? 1950 ????? ???????? (27 ????) ??????? ?????? ???????? . ???? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ????.
?? 1953 ????? ???????? (5 ?????) ????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? (amt).
?? 1954 ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? .
?? 1957 ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ????? . ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??? 1971.
?? 1958 ???? ???????????? ???????? ????????.
?? 1959 ????? ?????? (3 ?????) ?????? (21 ?????) ????????? 49 ? 50 ??? ??????? ???????? ???????.
?? 1959 ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????.
????? ????? ^[??????????] ?? 1959 ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ????????.
?? ???? ???????? ?? 41 ????? ?? 1956? ??? 21 ????? 1960 ????? ????? ????????.

?????? [ ??? ]

??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? (??? ??????? ???????) ???????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ????????. ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????????. ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? .
???? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ??????: ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ?? ?????. ????? ????????? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????. ??? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?????.
???? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????. ??? 1953 ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????. ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????. ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? 1953 ?????? 1956.

??????? [ ??? ]

??????:

?? 15 ????? 1950 ??? ????? ???? 8.6 ????? ????? ????-????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? (XI)? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? 1500 ? 3300 ???.
?? 18 ????? 1951 ????? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? 3000 ???.
?? 31 ????? 1953 ???? ????? ??? ?????? 1953 ????? 1,835 ????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? (???? ?????? ) ? 307 ?? ??????? ???????. ^[2]
?? 9 ?????? 1954 ??? ????? ????? ???? 6.7 ????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? (XI). ???? ?????? ????? ????? ? ???? ?? ??? 1243-1409 ???? ?5000 ????.
?? 11 ?????? 1954 ??? ????? ???? ????? ? ????? ?? ???? 1000 ???.
?? 19 ????? 1955 ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ???? ?? 200 ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? 1.0 ????? ?????.
?? 27 ????? 1957 ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?? ???? 400 ???.
?? ????? 1959 ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???????? .
??? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? 26 ?????? 1959? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? 5098 ?????? 38921 ?????? ???? 1,533,000 ??? ????. ????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? .
?? 2 ?????? 1959 ????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ???? 412 ?????.

?????:

?? 12 ???? 1950 ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? 80 ?????.
?? ????? ?????? 1952 ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ≪???? ???? ????????≫. ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? 4000 ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? 100,000 ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? .
?? 18 ????? 1953 ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??-124 ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?? ???? 129 ????? ????? ??? ?????.
?? 10 ????? 1954 ????? ????? BOAC ???? 781 ? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? 35 ?????.
?? 30 ????? 1956 ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??-7 ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??-1049 ???? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? 128 ????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????????.
?? 25 ????? 1956 ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? MS ???????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????? . ???? 51 ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????.
?? 6 ?????? 1958 ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ??? 609 ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ^[??????????] ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? . ???? 23 ????? ??? ????? (???? 8 ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????).
?? 21 ????? 1958 ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? 736 ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? 49 ?????.
?? 14 ????? 1958 ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ? ??? ???? ?? ???? 99 ????? ????? ??? ?????.

???????? [ ??? ]

???? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? .
??? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????????. ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? 8? ??? 9? ??????. ??? ??? 1952 ??? ??????. ??? ???? ????? 1954 ?1955 ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? 1? ??? 3.7?. ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? 2.04? ???. ^[3]

???????? ???????? ???????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???:

1950: ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? - ???? ????? ?? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ????. ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ??????.
1951: ?????? ????? ??? ???? - ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????. ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ?? 1994.
1955: ?????? ???? ???? - ????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? .
1956: ?????? ???? ????????? - ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ??? ?? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? .
1959: ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ? ????? ?? ?? ???????????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?????????? ????????.

?????? ???????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ??? GE ?RCA ?Philco ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????????. ??? ??? ????? ????? ??????????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ????????? ?? ?????? 1951 ?? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? . ?? ???? ?????? ??????????? ??? 1954 ?? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????.

??? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? MOSFET ( ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????)? ???????? ????? ???? ????????? MOS ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ^[4] ?? ?????? 1959. ^[5] ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???????????? ? ^[6] ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? . ^[7] ????? MOSFET ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????. ^[8]^[9]

??? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ??????????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ???????. ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????????? ???? ?????? 1950-1952. ??? 1954 ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? RCA ??? ?????? ?????. ??? ??? 1954 ??? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? 59 ????? ???. ?? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? 1954. ??? 1955 ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????. ??? ??? 1956 ?? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???????.

???? ?????? ?? 1957: ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? 184 ????? (83 ???) ???? ?????? 1 . ??? ???? ?????? ??? 4 ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????.

????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????

??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? 1953 ?? ????? ???????? .
???? ??????? ???????? ?????? 1 ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?? 4 ?????? 1957.
???? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? .
?????? ??????? ??????? ???????.
???? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??????.
??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????????????? . ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? .
????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????????? ????? ??????? ?? 4 ?????? 1951? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????. ???? AT&T ????? ?? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????.

?????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?????? . ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????.
?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? .
??? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ?????.
?? ????? ???? .
?? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? .
????? ?????? ???? .
??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? 1951? ?? ??? ?????? ???? . ????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ^[??????????] ??????? ?????????.
??? ??????? ????? ?????? ^[??????????] ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? 1953.

????? ???? [ ??? ]

?????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????. ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ??? 1950 ??? ??? 4.4 ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ???????. ??? ?????????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????. ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????. ^[10] ???? ?????????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????. ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????. ≪?????????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ???????≫. ^[11]

??????? [ ??? ]

?????? ????????? ????????? 1

?????????? [ ??? ]

??? ??????? ????????? ??????? 1952 ?? ?????? ??????.
??? ??????? ????????? ??????? 1952 ?? ????? ???????.
??? ??????? ????????? ??????? 1956 ?? ?????? ????????.
??? ??????? ????????? ??????? 1956 ?? ??????? ???????? ???????.

??? ?????? ???? ????? [ ??? ]

???? ??? ?????? 1950 ?? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????.
???? ??? ?????? 1954 ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????.
???? ??? ?????? 1958 ?? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????.

???? ??? ?????? 1958 ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? 17 ????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ???.

????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

????? [ ??? ]

^ "The Pentagon Papers, Volume 1, Chapter 5, Section 3, "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954?1960" " . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2017-10-19.
^ Stratton? J.M. (1969). Agricultural Records . John Baker. ISBN : 978-0-212-97022-3 .
^ "Inflation and CPI Consumer Price Index 1950?1959" . Inflation Data . InflationData.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2021-02-24 . ???? ???? ?????? 2014-04-23 .
^ "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" . The Silicon Engine . ???? ????? ??????? . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-03-18.
^ Bassett? Ross Knox (2007). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology . ????? ????? ???? ??????? . ?. 22. ISBN : 9780801886393 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-04-17.
^ Chan? Yi-Jen (1992). Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications . ????? ??????? . ?. 1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-03-26. The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.
^ Wong? Kit Po (2009). Electrical Engineering - Volume II . EOLSS Publications ^{[???? ????]}‏. ?. 7. ISBN : 9781905839780 . {{ ??????? ????? }}: ????? ?????????: ?????? ????? ????? ( link )
^ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History" . ???? ????? ??????? . 2 ????? 2018. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-08-28 . ???? ???? ?????? 2019-07-28 .
^ Baker? R. Jacob (2011). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation . ??? ????? ??????? ^[????????]. ?. 7. ISBN : 978-1118038239 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-03-19.
^ Kallen? Stuart (1999). A Cultural History of the United States . San Diego: Lucent.
^ American History . ABC-CLIO, 2012. Web. 11 Dec. 2012.

??? 1950 ?? ???????? ??????? :

??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????.
????? ?? ???? ???????.

[1] "The Pentagon Papers, Volume 1, Chapter 5, Section 3, "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954?1960" " . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2017-10-19.

[2] Stratton? J.M. (1969). Agricultural Records . John Baker. ISBN : 978-0-212-97022-3 .

[3] "Inflation and CPI Consumer Price Index 1950?1959" . Inflation Data . InflationData.com. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2021-02-24 . ???? ???? ?????? 2014-04-23 .

[computerhistory-4] "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated" . The Silicon Engine . ???? ????? ??????? . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-03-18.

[Bassett22-5] Bassett? Ross Knox (2007). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology . ????? ????? ???? ??????? . ?. 22. ISBN : 9780801886393 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-04-17.

[Chan-6] Chan? Yi-Jen (1992). Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications . ????? ??????? . ?. 1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-03-26. The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.

[7] Wong? Kit Po (2009). Electrical Engineering - Volume II . EOLSS Publications ^{[???? ????]}‏. ?. 7. ISBN : 9781905839780 . {{ ??????? ????? }}: ????? ?????????: ?????? ????? ????? ( link )

[computerhistory2018-8] "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History" . ???? ????? ??????? . 2 ????? 2018. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-08-28 . ???? ???? ?????? 2019-07-28 .

[Baker-9] Baker? R. Jacob (2011). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation . ??? ????? ??????? ^[????????]. ?. 7. ISBN : 978-1118038239 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2022-03-19.

[10] Kallen? Stuart (1999). A Cultural History of the United States . San Diego: Lucent.

[11] American History . ABC-CLIO, 2012. Web. 11 Dec. 2012.

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