한국   대만   중국   일본 
????????? - ?????????? ?????????????

?????????

??????????
????????????? ?????????????

Bacteria
??????????????????????: ????????? ???????????????? ? ????????
?????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????? Escherichia coli ??????????????? ????
?????????????????????????? แก้ไขการจำแนกนี้
?????: ?????????
Woese , Kandler & Wheelis , 1990 [1]
?????
????????
Eubacteria Woese & Fox, 1977 [3]

????????? ???? ??????? ( ?????? : bacteria / b æ k ? t ??r i ? /   ( ???????? ) ; ??????? bacterium ) ???? ????? ??????????? ????????????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????????????????????? ????????? ????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????? ? ?????????????????????? ??? ??????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????, ????????, ????????? ????????????????, ??????????????? [4] , ??? ?????????????? ??? ????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????? 27 ??? ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ?????????????????? [5] ???????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????? (bacteriology) ??????????????????? ???????????

????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ???????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ????????? 12 ( ????????? ) ??????????????????????????????????? ????????? 12 ???? ??????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ???????????????, ???? ?????????? ?? ??????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????? ??? ????????? ????????? 12 ????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????????????? [6] [7] [8] [9] ????????????????????? 40 ??????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ????????????????????????????? 5×10 30 ???????? [10] ????????? ????????? ????????????????????????????? [11] ????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ??? ???????????? ???????????????????????? ??????????????????? (decomposition) ??? ?????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????? ??????????? (putrefaction) ???????????????????? [12] ??????????????????????????? ???????????? ??? ???????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????? (extremophile) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (???? ??????????????? ??? ????? ) ??????????????

???????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ??? ??????? ???????????? [13] ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????????????????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????????????????????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????????????????? 2 ??????????????? ????????????? ???????????????? [14] ?????????????????????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????????????????????????????? ????? ??????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????????? ??????????????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? , ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? , ????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ? ?????????????????????????????????? [15] ??? ??????????????? , ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ? [16]

??????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????????? ??? ????????????? Schizomycetes (?????????????????????????) ?????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ????? ????????? ?????????????????????? ????????? ???? ? ???????????? ????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????? 1990 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????? ??? ????????? ??? ???????? ????????????????? ??? ??????? ????? ????????????????? [1]

???????????? [ ??? ]

????? bacteria ????????????????? bacterium ??? ????????????????? ??????????????? βακτ?ριον ( bakterion ) [17] ?? ???????? ???????????????? ???? βακτ?ριον ?????????????????? (diminutive) ??? βακτηρ?α ( bakteria ) ????????? "???, ???????" [18] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [19] [20]

??????????????????????????????? [ ??? ]

??????????: ??????????????????????
???????????????: ???????????????????????? , ??????????????????????????????? , ??? ??????????????????

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????? ????? ??????????? 4 ???????????????? ???????????? 3 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????? [21] [22] ?????????? ????????????? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? (gene sequencing) ????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????/????????????????????? [23] ??????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????????? 2.5 ???????????????????????? [24] [25] ????????????????????? ????????????????????????????? 3.22 ???????????????? [26]

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? [27] [28] ?????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????? (proto-eukaryotic cell) ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ????????????????????????????? (???????????????? ????? ?????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????; amitocondrial protozoa) ??????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ??????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? (primary endosymbiosis) [29] [30]

??????????? [ ??? ]

???????????????: ?????????????????????????? § ??????????????
a diagram showing bacteria morphology
?????????????????????????????????????????????

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ????????? (morphologies) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? 0.5?5.0 ????????? ???????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? Thiomargarita namibiensis ???????????????????????????????? [31] ??? Epulopiscium fishelsoni ????????? 0.7 ????????? [32] ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? Mycoplasma ?????????????????? 0.3 ????????? ?????????? ????? ??????????????????? [33] ?????????????????????????????? ???????? ????????????????????????????? (ultramicrobacteria) ???????????????????????????????? [34]

????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ?????? (???????: ???????; ??????????? kokkos ???????????, ?????), ?????????????? ???????? ??????? (???????: ????????; ??? ????????? baculus ??????) [35] ??????????????????????????? ??????? ???????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????? ??????? , ???????????????????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????? [36] ?????????????????????????????????????? ????????? ??? ???????????? ??????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????, ???????????????????, ?????????????????? ???????????? ?????? [37] [38]

???????????? ?????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ????????????? ???? ?

??????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? Neisseria ??????????????????? (???), Streptococcus ????????????????????, ??? Staphylococcus ??????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ????????? ??? Actinobacteria , ??????????????? Myxobacteria , ?????????????????????????? Streptomyces [39] ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ????????????????? Myxobacteria ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? (quorum sensing) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (fruiting body) ?????????????????? 500 ???????????????????????????????????????? 100,000 ??? [40] ????????????? ???????????????????????? ? ?????? ???????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (differentiation) ??????????????????????????? ?????????? (myxospore) ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ? ???????????????? [41]

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????? (biofilm) ??????????????????????????? ????????? (microbial mat) ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????, ???????? ??? ???????? ???????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????? ??????? ??????????? (microcolony) ??????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????? [42] [43] ???????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [44] ??????????? ??????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (chronic bacterial infection) ????????????????? ?????????????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [45]

??????????????????? [ ??? ]

???????????????: ??????????????????????????
เซลล์โพรแคริโอตแสดงโครงสร้างและชิ้นส่วนต่าง ๆ
?????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????? ????????? (??????????????????????????????????)

??????????????????? [ ??? ]

??????????????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????????????????????? ? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????? ????????????????????????????? ?????????? ????????????? [46] ???????????? ????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? ????????? ???????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????? [47] ???????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????? (protein-bound organelle) ???????????????? ???? ???????????? (carboxysome) [48] ??????????????????????????????? (compartmentalisation) ?????????????????????????????????????? [49] [50] ??????????????????????? ???????????? ??????????????????????? ???????????????????????? (localisation) ?????????????????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? [51] [52] [53]

????????? ??????? ???????? ??????????????????? ??????????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????????? ????? ????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????? ??????????? (periplasm) [54] ???????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (light-gathering membrane) [55] ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? (chlorosome) ?? ??????????????????????? [56]

????????????????????????????????? Halothiobacillus neapolitanus ??????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? 100 ????????

????????????????????????????????????? ??? ???????????? ??????? ???????????????? ??? ???????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ??????????? (nucleoid) [57] ????????????????????????????????????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ??????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????? ??? ???????? [58]

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? ???????? [59] , ?????????? [60] , ???????? [61] , ???? ?????????????????????? [62] ??????? ???? ??????????????? ????????? ????????????????? ??? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ? ??????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [63]

???????????????????? [ ??? ]

???????????????: ?????????????????????

???????????????????????????? ????????? ???????????????? ????????????? (?????????????????????; peptidoglycan, murein) ????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???????????? [64] ??????????????????????????????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????????????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? [65] ???????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? ????????? (???????????????????????? Penicillium ) ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [65]

?????????????????????????????????? ? ????????????????????????? ???????????????? (Gram-positive bacteria) ??? ??????????????? (Gram-negative bacteria) ????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????? (Gram stain) ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [66]

??????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ????????????????? ?? ??????????? ???????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? Firmicutes ??? Actinobacteria (??????????????????????????????????????????????????? C+G ??? ??? C+G ??? ????????) ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [67] ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ????? ??????????????????? Haemophilus influenzae ???? Pseudomonas aeruginosa [68] ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? Mycobacteria ???????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????? [69]

??????????????????? ??????? (S-layer, surface layer) ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [70] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ??? ????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????? Campylobacter ???????? ??????? ????????? Bacillus stearothermophilus ??????????????????????????????????????????? [71]

Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface
????????????????????????????????? Helicobacter pylori ??????????????????????????????????????????

???????? ???????????????????????????? ??????????????????? 20 ???????? ???????????? 20 ????????? ????????? ????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????? ????????????????????????????????????????????? [72]

???????? (fimbriae) ???? " ??????????? (attachment pili)" ?????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? 2?10 ???????? ??????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? [73] ???? (pili; ??????? pilus) ?????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????????? ???????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? (conjugation) ????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? (???????????????????????????????????????) [74] ???????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ???????? 4 (type IV pili) [75]

?????????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????? ????????? ????????? ??? ???????????????????????????????????? (extracellular polymeric substance) ????????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? ???????? (???????????? ??????????????? ) [76] ??????? ??????????????????????????????? ???????? (antigen), ?????????????????????????????, ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? [77]

?????????????????? ? ??????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????? ???????? ???????????????????????????? [78]

?????????? [ ??? ]

???????????????: ??????????
Anthrax stained purple
Bacillus anthracis (??????????????) ???????????????? ????????????????????

??????????????????? ???? ???? Bacillus , Clostridium , Sporohalobacter , Anaerobacter , ??? Heliobacterium ????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ?????????? (endospore) [79] ??????????????????????????????????????? [80] ??????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????????????????????? (cortex layer) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [80]

?????????????????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? ????????? ??????????????, ???????????????? , ????????? , ??????????? , ????????, ??????????, ???????, ??? ????????????? [81] ?????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????? [82] [83] [84] ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????? ????????? , ????????? , ?????????????? , ?????? , ???????????????????? (planetoid), ???????? ??????????????????????????????????? (directed panspermia) [85] [86] ???????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????????????????????????????? Bacillus anthracis ??????????????, ??? ???????? ??????????????????????????????????????????? Clostridium tetani [87]

??????????? [ ??? ]

???????????????: ????????????????????????

???????????????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????????? [88] ??????????????????????? (trait) ??????????????????????????????????????? ? ??????? ??????????? ???????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [89] ???????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? , ???????????????? , ??????????? ??????? ?????????????????????? [90]

????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ( ????????? ; phototrophy) ??????????????????????????? ??????????????????? ( ????????? ; chemotrophy) [91] ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????? ???? ???????? , ???????????????? , ???? ????????? ???? ?????????????????? ????????????? ???????? (lithotroph) ??????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? (organotroph) [91] ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ??????????????????? (aerobic bacteria) ??????? ???????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????????? (anaerobic bacteria) ???????????????????? ???? ?????? , ?????? , ???????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? [91]

????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ( ???????????? ; heterotrophy) ????????????? ? ???? ??????????????? ??? ??????????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? [92] ????????????????????? ????????? ?????????? (methanotroph) ??????????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????????? [93]

??????????????????????????????????????????????????
????? ???????????? ???????????? ????????
  ????????   ??????????  ????????????????? (photoheterotrophs) ????????????????????? (photoautotrophs)   Cyanobacteria , Green sulfur bacteria , Chloroflexi , ???? Purple bacteria  
  ???????? ??????????????????  ????????????????? (lithoheterotrophs) ????????????????????? (lithoautotrophs)   Thermodesulfobacteria , Hydrogenophilaceae , ???? Nitrospirae  
  ???????????? ?????????????????  ????????????????? (chemoheterotrophs) ????????????????????? (chemoautotrophs)     Bacillus , Clostridium ???? Enterobacteriaceae  

?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [94] ?????????????????????????? ??? ?????????????? , ????????????????, ??? ???????????????????? ???????? [95] [96] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????? ???????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? ( methyl- ??? dimethylmercury ) ????????????? [97] ????????????????????????????????????? ??????? ????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????? (??????????????????????????) ???????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????? (facultative anaerobe) ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ??????? ????????????????????????????????????????? [98]

???????????????????????? [ ??? ]

drawing of showing the processes of binary fission, mitosis, and meiosis
?????????????????????????????? ????????????????? (binary fission) ???????????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????????????????????????????????
???????????????: ??????????????????????????

??????????????????????? ???????????????????? (??????????????????????????????) ?????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ??????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????? ?????????????????????????? ??????????? [99] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????? ? 9.8 ???? [100] ???????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????? Myxobacteria ????????????????? ???? ????????????????????? Streptomyces , ?????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [101]

E. coli colony
????????? Escherichia coli [102]

????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ???????? (agar plate) ???????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????? (stirred liquid media) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????? (selective media; ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????) ???????????????????????????????? [103]

????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (?????? ???????????????? r/K ) ????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? (algal bloom) ?????????????????????????????????? [104] ?????????????????????????????????????????? ???? Streptomyces ??????? ??????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? [105] ?????????? ?????????????????????????????????????? (???? ??????????? ) ?????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????? (environmental stress) [44] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ( syntrophy ) [106]

?????????????????????????? ????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? ???????? (lag phase) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? (biosynthesis) ??? ???????????????????????????????????????????????? [107] [108] ?????????????????????????????? ????????????? (logarithmic phase) ?????????????????????????????????????? (exponential phase) ????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ( growth rate , k ) ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ( generation time , g ) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????? ????????? (stationary phase) ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? ?????????????????? ??? ???????????????? ??????? [109] ?????????????? ???????????? (death phase) ??????????????????????????????????????????? [110]

??????????? [ ??? ]

??????????: ????????????????????

?????????????????? ???????? ??????????????? ????????????? 160,000 ?????? ??????????? ??????????????? Carsonella ruddii [111] ??????????? 12,200,000 ?????? (12.2 Mbp) ??????????? Sorangium cellulosum ????????????????? [112] ??????????????????????????????????? ???? ????????????? Streptomyces ??? Borrelia ??????????????????????????????????? [113] [114] ???????????????? Vibrio ????????????????????????? [115] ??????????????????????? ??????? ?????????????????????????????????? (extra-chromosomal molecule of DNA) ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???? ????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ??????????? ????????????? [116]

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ??????? (intron) ???????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? [117]

???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????????????? ???? ???????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ???????????????? (mutagen) ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [118] ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (stress-directed mutation) ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [119]

????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????? (exogenous DNA) ????????????????????????? ??????????????? (transformation) [120] ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [121] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [122] ?????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????? (transduction) ????????????????? ????????????? (bacteriophage) ??????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? (lyses) ???????????????????????????????????? ????? [123] ????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? (restriction modification system) ??????????????????????????? [124] ?????????????????? ????????? (CRISPR) ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? (RNA interference) [125] [126] ?????????????????????? ?????????? (conjugation) ??????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ?????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ???? ?????????????????????????? [127] [128] ????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????? (horizontal gene transfer) ????????????????????????????????????? [129]

?????????????????????????????? [ ??? ]

????????????????????????????????? ????? ??????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ????? ??????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????
ภาพวาดอันโตนี ฟัน เลเวินฮุกในชุดคลุมและเสื้อประดับขอบ ด้านข้างมีหมึกปากกาและกระดาษ
??????? ??? ????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????

??????? ??? ????????? ???????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????????? [130] ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? [131] [132] [133] ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????? [134] ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????? " ?????????? (animalcule)" ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????? ?????????? [135]

????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????????????? "bacterium" ????? ?.?. 1828 [136] ???????????????????? Bacterium ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [137] ????????????? Bacillus ?????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ?.?. 1835 [138]

?? ?.?. 1859 ?????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????? ??????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ( ????? ??? ?? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????? ) ???????????????????? ? ??????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ??????? ???? ???????????????????????? [139]

??????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????? ?? ?.?. 1905 ???????????????? [140] ?????????????? ??????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??? ????? ? ??????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????? [141]

??????????? ??????????? ????? ???????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????? ?.?. 1870 ??????????????????????????????????????????????? [142] [143]

??????????????????????????????????????? 19 ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? [144] ?? ?.?. 1910 ????? ??????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????? Treponema pallidum ????????????????? ???????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????????????????????????????????? [145] ????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????? ?? ?.?. 1908 ????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ?????????? ??? ????????????????? ? [146]

??????????????????????????????????????????????? ????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ????????????????????????????????????? [3] ????????????????????????????????? ????????????? ??????????????????????? 16s ???????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????? ???????????? [1]

??????? [ ??? ]

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