National government of the United States
The
federal government of the United States
(
U.S. federal government
or
U.S. government
)
[a]
is the
national government
of the
United States
, a
federal republic
located primarily in
North America
, composed of 50
states
, five major
self-governing territories
, several
island possessions
, and the
federal district
and national capital of
Washington, D.C.
, where most of the federal government is based.
The U.S. federal government, sometimes
simply referred to
as "Washington", is composed of three distinct branches:
legislative
,
executive
, and
judicial
, whose powers are vested by the
U.S. Constitution
in the
Congress
, the
president
, and the
federal courts
, respectively.
[2]
The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of
executive departments
and courts subordinate to the
U.S. Supreme Court
.
Naming
The full name of the republic is "United States of America". No other name appears in the
Constitution
, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which the nation is a party. The terms "Government of the United States of America" or "United States Government" are often used in official documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively.
In casual conversation or writing, the term "Federal Government" is often used, and the term "National Government" is sometimes used. The terms "Federal" and "National" in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government; for instance, the
Federal Bureau of Investigation
,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
, and
National Park Service
. Because the
seat of government
is in
Washington, D.C.
, "Washington" is sometimes used as a
metonym
for the federal government.
History
The United States government is based on the principles of
federalism
and
republicanism
, in which power is shared between the national government and
state governments
. The interpretation and execution of these principles, including what powers the federal government should have and how those powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since the adoption of the Constitution. Some make a case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states, or other recognized entities.
Since the
American Civil War
, the powers of the federal government have generally expanded greatly, although there have been periods since that time of legislative branch dominance (e.g., the decades immediately following the Civil War) or when
states' rights
proponents have succeeded in limiting federal power through legislative action, executive prerogative or by a constitutional interpretation by the courts.
[3]
[4]
One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of "
checks and balances
" among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American government: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. For example, while the legislative branch (
Congress
) has the power to create law, the executive branch under the
president
can
veto
any legislation?an act which, in turn, can be overridden by Congress.
[5]
The president nominates judges to the nation's highest judiciary authority, the
Supreme Court
(as well as to lower federal courts), but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in turn,
can invalidate
unconstitutional laws passed by the Congress. These and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below.
Legislative branch
The
United States Congress
, under Article I of the Constitution, is the legislative branch of the federal government. It is
bicameral
, comprising the
House of Representatives
and the
Senate
.
Makeup of Congress
House of Representatives
The
U.S. House of Representatives
is made up of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a
congressional district
in a state from where they were elected. Apportionment of seats among the 50 states is determined by state populations, and it is updated after each
decennial
U.S. Census. Each member serves a two-year term.
In order to be elected as a representative, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been a
U.S. citizen
for at least seven years, and must live in the state that they represent.
In addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one
resident commissioner
. There is one delegate each from
Washington, D.C.
,
Guam
, the
Virgin Islands
,
American Samoa
, the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
, and a
resident commissioner
from
Puerto Rico
.
[6]
Unlike the
U.S. Senate
, all members of the U.S. House must be elected and cannot be appointed. In the case of a vacancy, the seat must be filled through a special election, as required under Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution.
[7]
Senate
In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population. There are currently 100 senators (2 from each of the 50 states), who each serve six-year terms. Approximately one-third of the Senate stands for election every two years.
If a vacancy occurs, the state governor appoints a replacement to complete the term or to hold the office until a special election can take place.
[8]
Separate powers
The House and Senate each have particular exclusive powers. For example, the Senate must approve (give "
advice and consent
" to) many important presidential appointments, including cabinet officers,
federal judges
(including nominees to the Supreme Court), department secretaries (heads of federal executive branch departments), U.S. military and naval officers, and
ambassadors
to foreign countries. All legislative bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives. The approval of both chambers is required to pass all legislation, which then may only become law by being signed by the president (or, if the president
vetoes
the bill, both houses of Congress then re-pass the bill, but by a
two-thirds majority
of each chamber, in which case the bill becomes law without the president's signature). The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people.
The Constitution also includes the
Necessary and Proper Clause
, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers". Members of the House and Senate are elected by
first-past-the-post
voting in every state except
Louisiana
and
Georgia
, which have
runoffs
, and
Maine
and
Alaska
, which use
ranked-choice voting
.
Impeachment of federal officers
Congress
has the power to remove the president, federal judges, and other federal officers from office. The House of Representatives and Senate have separate roles in this process. The House must first vote to impeach the official. Then, a trial is held in the Senate to decide whether the official should be removed from office. As of 2023
[update]
, three presidents have been impeached:
Andrew Johnson
,
Bill Clinton
, and
Donald Trump
(twice). None of the three were removed from office following trial in the Senate.
[9]
Congressional procedures
Article I, Section 2, paragraph 2 of the U.S. Constitution gives each chamber the power to "determine the rules of its proceedings". From this provision were created
congressional committees
, which do the work of drafting legislation and conducting congressional investigations into national matters. The
118th Congress
(2023?2025) has 20 standing committees in the House
[10]
and 19 in the Senate,
[11]
plus 4 joint permanent committees with members from both houses overseeing the
Library of Congress
, printing, taxation, and the economy. In addition, each house may name special, or select, committees to study specific problems. Today, much of the congressional workload is borne by the subcommittees, of which there are around 150.
Powers of Congress
The Constitution grants numerous powers to Congress. Enumerated in Article I, Section 8, these include the powers to levy and collect
taxes
; to coin money and regulate its value; provide for punishment for counterfeiting; establish post offices and roads, issue patents, create federal courts inferior to the
Supreme Court
, combat
piracies
and
felonies
, declare
war
, raise and support
armies
, provide and maintain a
navy
, make rules for the regulation of land and naval forces, provide for, arm and discipline the
militia
, exercise exclusive legislation in the
District of Columbia
, regulate
interstate commerce
, and to make laws necessary to properly execute powers. Over the two centuries since the United States was formed, many disputes have arisen over the limits on the powers of the federal government. These disputes have often been the subject of lawsuits that have ultimately been decided by the
United States Supreme Court
.
Congressional oversight
Congressional oversight is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect
civil liberties
and individual rights, ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for making laws and educating the public, and evaluate executive performance.
[12]
It applies to cabinet departments, executive agencies, regulatory commissions, and the presidency.
Congress' oversight function takes many forms:
- Committee inquiries and
hearings
- Formal consultations with and reports from the
president
- Senate advice and consent for presidential nominations and for treaties
- House
impeachment
proceedings and subsequent Senate trials
- House and Senate proceedings under the
25th Amendment
if the president becomes disabled or if the office of the
vice president
falls vacant
- Informal meetings between legislators and executive officials
- Congressional membership: each state is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D.C.) in the House of Representatives. Each state is allocated two senators regardless of its population. As of November 2023
[update]
, the District of Columbia elects a non-voting representative to the House of Representatives along with American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Northern Mariana Islands.
[13]
Executive branch
President
Executive powers and duties
The executive branch is established in
Article Two of the United States Constitution
, which
vests executive power
in the
president of the United States
.
[14]
[15]
The president is both the
head of state
(performing ceremonial functions) and the
head of government
(the chief executive).
[16]
The Constitution directs the president to "
take care that the laws be faithfully executed
"
[15]
and requires the president to
swear or affirm
to "preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."
[17]
Legal scholars William P. Marshall and Saikrishna B. Prakash write of the Clause: "the President may neither breach federal law nor order their subordinates to do so, for defiance cannot be considered faithful execution. The Constitution also incorporates the English bars on dispensing or suspending the law, with some supposing that the Clause itself prohibits both."
[18]
Many presidential actions are undertaken via
executive orders
,
presidential proclamations
, and
presidential memoranda
.
[19]
The president is the
commander-in-chief
of the
armed forces
.
[15]
[20]
Under the
Reception Clause
, the president is empowered to "receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers"; the president has broad authority to conduct foreign relations, is generally considered to have the sole power of
diplomatic recognition
,
[15]
[21]
and is the United States' chief diplomat,
[21]
although the Congress also has an important role in legislating on foreign affairs,
[15]
[21]
and can, for example, "institute a trade embargo, declare war upon a foreign government that the President had recognized, or decline to appropriate funds for an embassy in that country."
[21]
The president may also negotiate and sign treaties, but ratifying treaties requires the consent of two-thirds of the Senate.
[22]
Article II's
Appointments Clause
provides that the president "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other
Officers of the United States
" while providing that "Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments."
[23]
These appointments delegate "by legal authority a portion of the sovereign powers of the federal government."
[24]
The Constitution grants the president the "Power to
grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States
, except in Cases of Impeachment"; this
clemency
power includes the power to issue absolute or conditional pardons, and to issue
commute sentences
, to remit fines, and to issue general
amnesties
.
[25]
The presidential clemency power extends only to federal crimes, and not to state crimes.
[26]
The president has informal powers beyond their formal powers. For example, the president has major
agenda-setting
powers to influence lawmaking and policymaking,
[27]
and typically has a major role as the
leader of their political party
.
[28]
Election, succession, and term limits
The
president
and
vice president
are normally elected as
running mates
by the
Electoral College
; each
state
has a number of electoral votes equal to the size of its Congressional delegation (
i.e.
, its number of Representatives in the House plus its two senators). The
District of Columbia
has a number of electoral votes "equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State".
[14]
[29]
A President may also be seated by
succession
. As originally drafted, there was no limit to the time a President could serve, however the Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, originally limits any president to serving two four-year terms (8 years); the amendment specifically "caps the service of a president at 10 years" by providing that "if a person succeeds to the office of president without election and serves less than two years, he may run for two full terms; otherwise, a person succeeding to office of president can serve no more than a single elected term."
[30]
[31]
Veto power, impeachment, and other issues
Under the
Presentment Clause
of Article I, a bill that passes both chambers of Congress shall be presented to the president, who may sign the bill into law or
veto
the bill by returning it to the chamber where it originated.
[32]
If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill "within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him" it becomes a law without the president's signature, "unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return in which Case it shall not be a Law" (called a
pocket veto
).
[32]
A presidential veto may be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress vote to override the veto;
[32]
this occurs relatively infrequently.
[33]
The president may be
impeached
by a majority in the House and removed from office by a two-thirds majority in the Senate for "
treason
,
bribery
, or other
high crimes and misdemeanors
".
The president may not
dissolve Congress
, but has the power to adjourn Congress whenever the House and Senate cannot agree when to adjourn; no president has ever used this power.
[18]
The president also has the constitutional power to, "on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them"; this power has been used "to consider nominations, war, and emergency legislation."
[18]
This Section invests the President with the discretion to convene Congress on "extraordinary occasions"; this
special session
power that has been used to call the chambers to consider urgent matters.
[18]
Vice president
The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal government. The vice president's duties and powers are established in the legislative branch of the federal government under Article 1, Section 3, Clauses 4 and 5 as the
president of the Senate
; this means that they are the designated presiding officer of the Senate. In that capacity, the vice president has the authority (
ex officio
, for they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a
tie-breaking vote
. Pursuant to the
Twelfth Amendment
, the vice president presides over the
joint session of Congress
when it convenes to count the vote of the
Electoral College
. As first in the
U.S. presidential line of succession
, the vice president's duties and powers move to the executive branch when becoming president upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president, which has happened
nine times
in U.S. history. Lastly, in the case of a
Twenty-fifth Amendment
succession event, the vice president would become acting president, assuming all of the powers and duties of president, except being designated as president. Accordingly, by circumstances, the Constitution designates the vice president as routinely in the legislative branch, or succeeding to the executive branch as president, or possibly being in both as acting president pursuant to the
Twenty-fifth Amendment
. Because of circumstances, the overlapping nature of the duties and powers attributed to the office, the title of the office and other matters, such has generated a spirited scholarly dispute regarding attaching an exclusive branch designation to the office of vice president.
[34]
[35]
Cabinet, executive departments, and agencies
Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution sets forth the creation of a presidential Cabinet. The role of the Cabinet is to advise the president and carry out the programs and laws of the federal government. The Cabinet is composed of the vice president and the leaders of 15 executive departments. Those executive departments are the Departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security.
[36]
Additionally, there are seven other members of the Cabinet who are appointed by the president. These are the White House Chief of Staff, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Director of the Office of Management & Budget, United States Trade Representative, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, and Administrator of the Small Business Administration.
[37]
The heads of the 15 departments are chosen by the president and approved with the "advice and consent" of the U.S. Senate. Once confirmed, these "Cabinet secretaries" serve at the pleasure of the president.
In addition to the executive departments, a number of staff organizations are grouped into the
Executive Office of the President
(EOP), which was created in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
[37]
The EOP is overseen by the White House Chief of Staff. The EOP includes the
White House
staff, the
National Security Council
, the
Office of Management and Budget
, the
Council of Economic Advisers
, the
Council on Environmental Quality
, the
Office of the U.S. Trade Representative
, the
Office of National Drug Control Policy
, and the
Office of Science and Technology Policy
.
Outside of the EOP and the executive departments are a number of
independent agencies
. These include the
United States Postal Service
(USPS),
NASA
, the
Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA), the
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID). In addition, there are
government-owned corporations
, including the
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
and the
National Railroad Passenger Corporation
.
Judicial branch
The Judiciary, under Article III of the Constitution, explains and applies the laws. This branch does this by hearing and eventually making decisions on various legal cases.
Overview of the federal judiciary
Article III section I of the Constitution establishes the
Supreme Court of the United States
and authorizes the
United States Congress
to establish inferior courts as their need shall arise. Section I also establishes a lifetime tenure for all federal judges and states that their compensation may not be diminished during their time in office. Article II section II establishes that all federal judges are to be appointed by the president and confirmed by the United States Senate.
The
Judiciary Act of 1789
subdivided the nation jurisdictionally into
judicial districts
and created federal courts for each district. The three tiered structure of this act established the basic structure of the national judiciary: the Supreme Court, 13 courts of appeals, 94 district courts, and two courts of special jurisdiction. Congress retains the power to re-organize or even abolish federal courts lower than the Supreme Court.
The U.S. Supreme Court decides
cases and controversies
, which include matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and interpretation of the United States Constitution, and, in general, can declare legislation or executive action made at any level of the government as
unconstitutional
, nullifying the law and creating
precedent
for future law and decisions. The United States Constitution does not specifically mention the power of
judicial review
, which is the power to declare a law unconstitutional. There have been instances in the past where such declarations have been ignored by the other two branches. Below the U.S. Supreme Court are the
United States Courts of Appeals
, and below them in turn are the
United States District Courts
, which are the general trial courts for federal law, and for certain controversies between litigants who are not deemed citizens of the same state, known as
diversity jurisdiction
.
There are three levels of federal courts with general jurisdiction, which are courts that handle both
criminal
and
civil
suits between individuals. Other courts, such as the
bankruptcy courts
and the
U.S. Tax Court
, are specialized courts handling only certain kinds of cases, known as
subject matter jurisdiction
. The Bankruptcy Courts are supervised by the district courts, and, as such, are not considered part of the
Article III
judiciary. As such, their judges do not have lifetime tenure, nor are they Constitutionally exempt from diminution of their remuneration.
[38]
The Tax Court is an Article I Court, not an Article III Court.
[39]
The district courts are the trial courts wherein cases that are considered under the Judicial Code (Title 28, United States Code) consistent with the jurisdictional precepts of
federal question jurisdiction
, diversity jurisdiction, and
pendent jurisdiction
can be filed and decided. The district courts can also hear cases under
removal jurisdiction
, wherein a case brought in a state court meets the requirements for diversity jurisdiction, and one party litigant chooses to "remove" the case from state court to federal court.
The United States Courts of Appeals are appellate courts that hear appeals of cases decided by the district courts, and some direct appeals from administrative agencies, and some interlocutory appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court hears appeals from the decisions of the courts of appeals or state supreme courts, and in addition has
original jurisdiction
over a few cases.
The judicial power extends to cases arising under the Constitution, an
Act of Congress
; a U.S.
treaty
; cases affecting
ambassadors
,
ministers
and
consuls
of foreign countries in the U.S.; cases and controversies to which the federal government is a party; controversies between states (or their citizens) and foreign nations (or their citizens or subjects); and bankruptcy cases (collectively "federal-question jurisdiction"). The
Eleventh Amendment
removed from federal jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were the plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. It did not disturb federal jurisdiction in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant.
The power of the federal courts extends both to civil actions for damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law. The interplay of the Supremacy Clause and Article III has resulted in a complex set of relationships between state and federal courts. Federal courts can sometimes hear cases arising under state law pursuant to
diversity jurisdiction
, state courts can decide certain matters involving federal law, and a handful of federal claims are primarily reserved by federal statute to the state courts. Both court systems have
exclusive jurisdiction
in some areas and
concurrent jurisdiction
in others.
The U.S. Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that federal judges shall hold office "during good behavior"; in practice, this usually means they serve until they die, retire, or resign. A judge who commits an offense while in office may be
impeached
in the same way as the president or other officials of the federal government. U.S. judges are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Another Constitutional provision prohibits Congress from reducing the pay of any present Article III judge. However, Congress is able to set a lower salary for all future judges who take office after such a pay reduction is passed by Congress.
Relationships between state and federal courts
Separate from, but not entirely independent of, this federal court system are the court systems of each state, each dealing with, in addition to federal law when not deemed preempted, a state's own laws, and having its own court rules and procedures. Although state governments and the federal government are legally
dual sovereigns
, the Supreme Court of the United States is in many cases the appellate court from the State Supreme Courts (e.g., absent the Court countenancing the applicability of the
doctrine of adequate and independent State grounds
). The
Supreme Courts of each state
are by this doctrine the final authority on the interpretation of the applicable state's laws and Constitution. Many state constitution provisions are equal in breadth to those of the U.S. Constitution, but are considered "parallel" (thus, where, for example, the
right to privacy
pursuant to a state constitution is broader than the federal right to privacy, and the asserted ground is explicitly held to be "independent", the question can be finally decided in a State Supreme Court?the U.S. Supreme Court will decline to take jurisdiction).
A State Supreme Court, other than of its own accord, is bound
only
by the U.S. Supreme Court's interpretation of federal law, but is
not
bound by interpretation of federal law by the federal court of appeals for the federal circuit in which the state is included, or even the federal district courts located in the state, a result of the
dual sovereigns
concept. Conversely, a federal district court hearing a matter involving only a question of state law (usually through
diversity jurisdiction
) must apply the substantive law of the state in which the court sits, a result of the application of the
Erie Doctrine
; however, at the same time, the case is heard under the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
, the
Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
and the
Federal Rules of Evidence
instead of state procedural rules (that is, the application of the
Erie Doctrine
only extends to a requirement that a federal court asserting diversity jurisdiction apply
substantive
state law, but not
procedural
state law, which may be different). Together, the laws of the federal and state governments form
U.S. law
.
Budget
The budget document often begins with the
president
's proposal to
Congress
recommending funding levels for the next
fiscal year
, beginning October 1 and ending on September 30 of the year following. The fiscal year refers to the year in which it ends.
For fiscal year (FY) 2018, the federal government spent $4.11 trillion. Spending equalled 20.3% of
gross domestic product
(GDP), equal to the 50-year average.
[40]
The deficit equaled $779 billion, 3.8 percent of GDP. Tax revenue amounted to $3.33 trillion, with receipt categories including individual income taxes ($1,684B or 51%), Social Security/Social Insurance taxes ($1,171B or 35%), and corporate taxes ($205B or 6%).
[40]
Employees
The United States federal government had about 2,260,000 civilian employees in FY2023, with about 160,000 of those in the
District of Columbia
(not counting the
United States Postal Service
).
[41]
Elections and voting
Suffrage
, known as the ability to vote, has changed significantly over time. In the early years of the United States, voting was considered a matter for state governments, and was commonly restricted to white men who owned land. Direct elections were mostly held only for the U.S. House of Representatives and state legislatures, although what specific bodies were elected by the electorate varied from state to state. Under this original system, both senators representing each state in the U.S. Senate were chosen by a majority vote of the state legislature. Since the ratification of the
Seventeenth Amendment
in 1913, members of both houses of Congress have been directly elected. Today, U.S. citizens have almost
universal suffrage
under equal protection of the laws
[42]
from the age of 18,
[43]
regardless of race,
[44]
gender,
[45]
or wealth.
[46]
The only significant exception to this is the
disenfranchisement of convicted felons
, and in some states former felons as well.
Under the U.S. Constitution, the representation of
U.S. territories
and the federal district of
District of Columbia
in Congress is
limited
: while residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes, their only congressional representative is a
non-voting delegate
; however, they have participated in presidential elections since March 29, 1961.
[47]
Residents of
Puerto Rico
other than federal employees do not pay
federal personal income taxes
on income that has its source in Puerto Rico,
[48]
[49]
and do not pay most federal
excise taxes
(for example, the federal
gasoline tax
);
[49]
however, Puerto Ricans pay all other federal taxes, including the federal
payroll taxes
that
fund Social Security and Medicare
; the
FUTA
tax; and business,
gift
, and
estate taxes
.
[49]
[48]
Puerto Rico is represented in the Congress by a nonvoting
Resident Commissioner
, a nonvoting delegate.
[50]
State, tribal, and local governments
State governments have the greatest influence over most Americans' daily lives. The
Tenth Amendment
prohibits the federal government from exercising any power not delegated to it by the Constitution; as a result, states handle the majority of issues most relevant to individuals within their jurisdiction. Because state governments are not authorized to print currency, they generally have to raise revenue through either taxes or bonds. As a result, state governments tend to impose severe budget cuts or raise taxes any time the economy is faltering.
[51]
Each state has its own written constitution, government and code of laws. The Constitution stipulates only that each state must have, "a Republican Government". Therefore, there are often great differences in law and procedure between individual states, concerning issues such as property, crime, health and education, amongst others. The highest elected official of each state is the
Governor
, with below him being the
Lieutenant Governor
. Each state also has an elected
state legislature
(
bicameralism
is a feature of every state except
Nebraska
), whose members represent the voters of the state. Each state maintains its own
state court
system. In some states, supreme and lower court justices are elected by the people; in others, they are appointed, as they are in the federal system.
As a result of the Supreme Court case
Worcester v. Georgia
,
American Indian tribes
are considered "domestic dependent nations" that operate as
sovereign
governments subject to federal authority but, in some cases, outside of the jurisdiction of state governments. Hundreds of laws, executive orders and court cases have modified the governmental status of tribes
vis-a-vis
individual states, but the two have continued to be recognized as separate bodies. Tribal governments vary in robustness, from a simple council used to manage all aspects of tribal affairs, to large and complex bureaucracies with several branches of government. Tribes are currently encouraged to form their own governments, with power resting in elected tribal councils, elected tribal chairpersons, or religiously appointed leaders (as is the case with
pueblos
). Tribal citizenship and voting rights are typically restricted to individuals of native descent, but tribes are free to set whatever citizenship requirements they wish.
The institutions that are responsible for local government within states are typically
counties
,
municipalities
, and
special-purpose districts
, which make laws that affect their particular area. These laws concern issues such as traffic, the sale of alcohol and the keeping of animals. A county is an administrative or political subdivision of a state, while
Louisiana
and
Alaska
have county-equivalent subdivisions called
parishes
and
boroughs
, respectively. The specific governmental powers of counties vary widely between the states, with those in
Connecticut
,
Rhode Island
, and some parts of
Alaska
and
Massachusetts
having little or no power, existing only as geographic distinctions. In other areas, county governments have more power, such as to collect taxes and maintain
law enforcement
agencies. Twenty states further divide their counties into
civil townships
. Population centers may be organized into
incorporated municipalities
of several types, including the
city
,
town
,
borough
, and
village
. These municipal entities also vary from state to state, and typically subordinate to the government of a county or civil township. However, many rural and suburban regions are in
unincorporated areas
that have no municipal government below the county or civil township level. Certain cities have consolidated with their county government to form
consolidated city-counties
, or have been legally separated from counties altogether to form
independent cities
. States may also create special-purpose districts that perform a single function or a set of related functions within an area inside one or more counties or municipalities, like
school districts
, water management districts, fire management districts, and library districts.
See also
President
Courts
|
Law
Agencies
|
States and territories
Works and websites
|
Notes
References
- ^
"3"
(PDF)
.
U.S. Government Publishing Office Style Manual
(2016 ed.).
U.S. Government Publishing Office
. 2016. p. 32.
ISBN
978-0-16-093601-2
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on July 29, 2018
. Retrieved
July 29,
2018
.
- ^
"Government structure"
.
USAFacts
. Retrieved
February 10,
2024
.
- ^
Ford, Henry Jones (1908). "The Influence of State Politics in Expanding Federal Power".
Proceedings of the American Political Science Association
.
5
: 53?63.
doi
:
10.2307/3038511
.
JSTOR
3038511
.
- ^
Judge Rules Favorably in Pennsylvania BRAC Suit (Associated Press, August 26)
[
permanent dead link
]
- ^
"The Legislative Branch"
.
whitehouse.gov
.
Archived
from the original on January 29, 2022
. Retrieved
January 20,
2013
– via
National Archives
.
- ^
"Member Web Site Listing (by State)"
.
U.S. House
. Archived from
the original
on August 28, 2008
. Retrieved
August 17,
2008
.
- ^
"Article I. Constitution of the United States of America"
.
Illinois General Assembly
. Retrieved
February 23,
2023
.
- ^
"Appointed Senators (1913-Present)"
.
United States Senate
. Retrieved
February 23,
2023
.
- ^
"Trump impeachment: A very simple guide"
.
BBC News
. December 19, 2019.
Archived
from the original on December 19, 2019
. Retrieved
February 11,
2022
.
- ^
"Committees"
.
house.gov
. Retrieved
November 23,
2023
.
- ^
"Committees"
.
U.S. Senate
. Retrieved
November 23,
2023
.
- ^
Kaiser, Frederick M. (January 3, 2006).
"Congressional Oversight"
(PDF)
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on July 25, 2008
. Retrieved
July 30,
2008
.
- ^
"Directory of Representatives"
.
house.gov
. Retrieved
November 23,
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"Constitution of the United States of America"
. 1787. "Article II" – via Wikisource.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
"Nature and Scope of Presidential Power"
.
U.S. Constitution Annotated
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
from the original on January 23, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
– via Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute.
- ^
Daniel W. Drezner (August 4, 2019).
"America's head of state, M.I.A."
Washington Post
.
Archived
from the original on December 16, 2020
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
"Article 2, Section I, Clause 8: Oath of Office"
.
U.S. Constitution Annotated
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
from the original on February 10, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
– via Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute.
- ^
a
b
c
d
William P. Marshall & Saikrishna B. Prakash,
Article II, Section 3: Common Interpretation
Archived
February 17, 2021, at the
Wayback Machine
, National Constitution Center (2021).
- ^
"Executive Order, Proclamation, or Executive Memorandum?"
.
Executive Orders: A Beginner's Guide
. Library of Congress Research Guide. 2020.
Archived
from the original on February 7, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
"ArtII.S2.C1.1.2 Commander in Chief Power: Doctrine and Practice"
.
Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
from the original on January 6, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Wilfred E. Binkley (1959).
The Man in the White House: His Powers and Duties
(paperback 2009 ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 247?57.
- ^
"ArtII.S2.C2.1 The Treaty Making Power"
.
Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
from the original on January 31, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
"ArtII.S2.C2.2.1.1 Appointing Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls"
.
Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
from the original on February 27, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
Steven G. Bradbury
(April 16, 2007).
Offices of the United States Within the Meaning of the Appointments Clause
(PDF)
. United States Department of Justice
Office of Legal Counsel
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on February 21, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
"ArtII.S2.C1.3.1.1 Scope of the Pardon Power"
.
Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation
. Congressional Research Service.
Archived
from the original on January 27, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
Lauren-Brooke Eisen, Hernandez Stroud & Josh Bell (January 9, 2021).
"Explainer: Presidential Pardon Power Explained"
. Brennan Center for Justice.
Archived
from the original on February 3, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
Paul E. Rutledge; Heather A. Larsen (August 2014).
"The President as Agenda Setter?in?Chief: The Dynamics of Congressional and Presidential Agenda Setting"
.
Policy Studies Journal
.
42
(3): 443?464.
doi
:
10.1111/psj.12068
.
Archived
from the original on April 23, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
James W. Davis (1992).
The President as Party Leader
. Praeger.
- ^
Amendment XXIII to the United States Constitution
- ^
Amendment XXII to the United States Constitution
- ^
Michael Levy,
Twenty-second Amendment: United States Constitution
Archived
April 16, 2021, at the
Wayback Machine
,
Encyclopædia Britannica
(2010).
- ^
a
b
c
"U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 7, Clauses 1?3: The Legislative Process"
.
Legal Information Institute
.
Archived
from the original on January 22, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
"Presidential Vetoes: Washington to Biden"
.
American Presidency Project
. University of California, Santa Barbara. January 8, 2021.
Archived
from the original on February 27, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
.
- ^
Goldstein, Joel K. (1995). "The New Constitutional Vice Presidency".
Wake Forest Law Review
.
30
(505).
- ^
Reynolds, Glenn Harlan (2007). "Is Dick Cheney Unconstitutional?".
Northwestern University Law Review Colloquy
.
102
(110).
- ^
"The Cabinet"
.
whitehouse.gov
. December 9, 2014
. Retrieved
March 1,
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"The Executive Branch"
.
The White House
. Retrieved
March 1,
2023
.
- ^
Federal tribunals in the United States
- ^
United States Tax Court
- ^
a
b
"CBO Monthly Budget Review-November 2018"
. November 7, 2018.
Archived
from the original on December 5, 2018
. Retrieved
December 6,
2018
.
- ^
"FedScope Federal Human Resources Data"
. U.S. Office of Personnel Management
. Retrieved
March 11,
2024
.
- ^
Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
- ^
Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution
- ^
Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
- ^
Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
- ^
Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
- ^
Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution
- ^
a
b
Alexia Fernandez Campbell,
Puerto Rico pays taxes. The US is obligated to help it just as much as Texas and Florida.
Archived
April 16, 2021, at the
Wayback Machine
,
Vox
(October 4, 2017).
- ^
a
b
c
David L. Brumbaugh,
U.S. Federal Taxes in Puerto Rico
Archived
April 15, 2021, at the
Wayback Machine
, Congressional Research Service (October 30, 2000).
- ^
Christopher M. Davis,
Parliamentary Rights of the Delegates and Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico
Archived
February 24, 2021, at the
Wayback Machine
, Congressional Research Service (October 16, 2019).
- ^
"A brief overview of state fiscal conditions and the effects of federal policies on state budgets"
(PDF)
. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. May 12, 2004.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on March 18, 2009
. Retrieved
July 30,
2008
.
Further reading
- Greenstein, Fred I. et al.
Evolution of the modern presidency : a bibliographical survey
(1977) bibliography and annotation of 2500 scholarly books and articles.
online
4
- Wood, Gordon S.
(1998).
The creation of the American Republic, 1776?1787
. Gordon S. Wood, Institute of Early American History and Culture (Williamsburg, Va.). p. 653.
ISBN
978-0-8078-2422-1
.
External links
Government
|
---|
|
---|
Overviews
| |
---|
Systems
| |
---|
Philosophies
| |
---|
Functions
| |
---|
Components
| |
---|
Governance
processes
| |
---|
Politics
| |
---|
Academic
| |
---|
History
| |
---|
International
| |
---|
Related
| |
---|
Categories
| |
---|
|
---|
Leadership
| |
---|
Titles
| |
---|
Defence /
foreign affairs /
public safety
| |
---|
Economics /
infrastructure
| |
---|
Environment /
natural resources
| |
---|
Social
| |
---|
Other
| |
---|
Lists
| |
---|
|
|
|
---|
Articles
| |
---|
Amendments
| |
---|
Formation
| |
---|
Clauses
| |
---|
Interpretation
| |
---|
Signatories
| Convention President
| |
---|
New Hampshire
| |
---|
Massachusetts
| |
---|
Connecticut
| |
---|
New York
| |
---|
New Jersey
| |
---|
Pennsylvania
| |
---|
Delaware
| |
---|
Maryland
| |
---|
Virginia
| |
---|
North Carolina
| |
---|
South Carolina
| |
---|
Georgia
| |
---|
Convention Secretary
| |
---|
|
---|
Related
| |
---|
Display
and legacy
| |
---|
Governments of North America
|
---|
Sovereign states
| |
---|
Dependencies and
other territories
| |
---|
|
---|
International
| |
---|
National
| |
---|
Artists
| |
---|
Other
| |
---|