System or group of people governing an organized community, often a state
A
government
is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a
state
.
In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of
legislature
,
executive
, and
judiciary
. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind of
constitution
, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.
While all types of organizations have
governance
, the term
government
is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200
independent national governments
and
subsidiary organizations
.
The main types of modern
political systems
recognized are
democracies
,
totalitarian regimes
, and, sitting between these two,
authoritarian regimes
with a variety of
hybrid regimes
.
[1]
[2]
Modern classification system also include
monarchies
as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.
[3]
[4]
Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy,
aristocracy
,
timocracy
,
oligarchy
,
democracy
,
theocracy
, and
tyranny
. These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and
mixed governments
are common. The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being
electoral contest
and
hereditary succession
.
Definitions and etymology
A government is the
system
to
govern
a
state
or community. The
Columbia Encyclopedia
defines government as "a system of social control under which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce them, is vested in a particular group in society".
[5]
While all types of organizations have
governance
, the word
government
is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200
independent national governments
on Earth, as well as their subsidiary organizations, such as
state and provincial governments
as well as
local governments
.
[6]
The word
government
derives from the Greek verb
κυβερν?ω
[
kubernao
] meaning
to steer
with a
gubernaculum
(rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in the literature of
classical antiquity
, including
Plato
's
Ship of State
.
In
British English
, "government" sometimes refers to what's also known as a "
ministry
" or an "
administration
", i.e., the policies and government officials of a particular executive or governing
coalition
. Finally,
government
is also sometimes used in English as a
synonym
for rule or governance.
[8]
In other languages,
cognates
may have a narrower scope, such as the
government of Portugal
, which is actually more similar to the concept of
"administration"
.
History
Earliest governments
The moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared.
By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas:
Sumer
,
ancient Egypt
, the
Indus Valley civilization
, and the
Yellow River civilization
.
One reason that explains the emergence of governments includes agriculture. Since the
Neolithic Revolution
, agriculture was an efficient method to create food surplus. This enabled people to specialize in non-agricultural activities. Some of them included being able to rule over others as an external authority. Others included social experimentation with diverse governance models. Both these activities formed the basis of governments.
[11]
These governments gradually became more complex as agriculture supported larger and denser populations, creating new
interactions
and
social pressures
that the government needed to control.
David Christian
explains
As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a striking parallel with star formation, new structures suddenly appeared, together with a new level of complexity. Like stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the smaller objects within their gravitational field.
Another explanation includes the need to properly manage infrastructure projects such as water infrastructure. Historically, this required centralized administration and complex social organisation, as seen in regions like Mesopotamia.
[12]
However, there is archaeological evidence that shows similar successes with more egalitarian and decentralized complex societies.
[13]
Modern governments
Starting at the end of the 17th century, the prevalence of republican forms of government grew. The
English Civil War
and
Glorious Revolution
in England, the
American Revolution
, and the
French Revolution
contributed to the growth of representative forms of government. The
Soviet Union
was the first large country to have a
Communist
government.
[6]
Since the fall of the
Berlin Wall
,
liberal democracy
has become an even more prevalent form of government.
[14]
In the nineteenth and twentieth century, there was a significant increase in the size and scale of government at the national level.
[15]
This included the regulation of corporations and the development of the
welfare state
.
[14]
Political science
Classification
In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of
polities
, as typologies of political systems are not obvious.
[16]
It is especially important in the
political science
fields of
comparative politics
and
international relations
. Like all categories discerned within forms of government, the boundaries of government classifications are either fluid or ill-defined.
Superficially, all governments have an official
de jure
or ideal form. The United States is a federal constitutional republic, while the former
Soviet Union
was a federal
socialist republic
. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky, especially
de facto
, when both its government and its economy deviate in practice.
For example,
Voltaire
argued that "the
Holy Roman Empire
is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire".
In practice, the Soviet Union was a centralized autocratic one-party state under
Joseph Stalin
.
Identifying a form of government is also difficult because many
political systems
originate as socio-economic movements and are then carried into governments by parties naming themselves after those movements; all with competing political-ideologies. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.
Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate "
distortion or bias
" of reasonable technical definitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era. For example: The meaning of "conservatism" in the United States has little in common with the way the word's definition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or
neoliberalism
"; a "conservative" in Finland would be labeled a "
socialist
" in the United States.
Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with
right-wing politics
and the
Republican Party
. However, during the era of
segregation
many
Southern Democrats
were conservatives, and they played a key role in the
conservative coalition
that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963.
[a]
Social-political ambiguity
Opinions vary by individuals concerning the types and properties of governments that exist. "Shades of gray" are commonplace in any government and its corresponding classification. Even the most liberal democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another while the most tyrannical dictatorships must organize a broad base of support thereby creating difficulties for "
pigeonholing
" governments into narrow categories. Examples include the claims of the
United States as being a plutocracy
rather than a democracy since some American voters believe elections are being manipulated by wealthy
Super PACs
.
[21]
Some consider that government is to be reconceptualised where in times of climatic change the needs and desires of the individual are reshaped to generate sufficiency for all.
[22]
Measurement of governing
A quality of a government can be measured by
Government effectiveness index
, which relates to
political efficacy
and
state capacity
.
[23]
Forms
Plato
in his book
The Republic
(375 BC) divided governments into five basic types (four being existing forms and one being Plato's ideal form, which exists "only in speech"):
[24]
- Aristocracy
(rule by law and order, like ideal traditional "benevolent" kingdoms that are not tyrannical)
- Democracy
(rule by pure liberty and equality, like a free citizen)
- Oligarchy
(rule by wealth and market-based-ethics, like a laissez-faire capitalist state)
- Timocracy
(rule by honor and duty, like a "benevolent" military; Sparta as an example)
- Tyranny
(rule by fear, like a despot)
These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at the top and tyranny at the bottom.
In his
Politics
, Aristotle elaborates on Plato's five regimes discussing them in relation to the government of one, of the few, and of the many.
[26]
From this follows the classification of forms of government according to which people have the authority to rule: either one person (an
autocracy
, such as monarchy), a select group of people (an aristocracy), or the people as a whole (a democracy, such as a republic).
Thomas Hobbes
stated on their classification:
The difference of
Commonwealths
consisteth in the difference of the
sovereign
, or the person representative of all and every one of the multitude. And because the sovereignty is either in one man, or in an assembly of more than one; and into that assembly either every man hath right to enter, or not every one, but certain men distinguished from the rest; it is manifest there can be but three kinds of Commonwealth. For the representative must needs be one man, or more; and if more, then it is the assembly of all, or but of a part. When the representative is one man, then is the Commonwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all that will come together, then it is a democracy, or popular Commonwealth; when an assembly of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy. Other kind of Commonwealth there can be none: for either one, or more, or all, must have the sovereign power (which I have shown to be indivisible) entire.
[27]
Modern basic political systems
According to
Yale
professor
Juan Jose Linz
, there a three main types of
political systems
today:
democracies
,
totalitarian regimes
and, sitting between these two,
authoritarian regimes
with
hybrid regimes
.
[2]
[28]
Another modern classification system includes
monarchies
as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.
[3]
Scholars generally refer to a
dictatorship
as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.
[29]
[2]
[30]
Autocracy
An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme
power
is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a
coup d'etat
or mass
insurrection
).
[31]
Absolute monarchy
is a historically prevalent form of autocracy, wherein a
monarch
governs as a singular
sovereign
with no limitation on
royal prerogative
. Most absolute monarchies are
hereditary
, however some, notably the
Holy See
, are
elected
by an
electoral college
(such as the
college of cardinals
, or
prince-electors
). Other forms of autocracy include
tyranny
,
despotism
, and
dictatorship
.
Aristocracy
Aristocracy
[b]
is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small,
elite
ruling class
,
[32]
such as a hereditary
nobility
or
privileged
caste
. This class exercises
minority rule
, often as a
landed
timocracy
, wealthy
plutocracy
, or
oligarchy
.
Many monarchies were aristocracies, although in modern constitutional monarchies the monarch may have little effective power. The term
aristocracy
could also refer to the non-
peasant
, non-servant, and non-
city
classes in the
feudal system
.
[
citation needed
]
Democracy
Democracy is a system of government where
citizens
exercise power by
voting
and
deliberation
. In a
direct democracy
, the citizenry as a whole directly forms a
participatory
governing body and vote directly on each issue. In
indirect democracy
, the citizenry governs indirectly through the selection of
representatives
or
delegates
from among themselves, typically by
election
or, less commonly, by
sortition
. These select citizens then meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature or
jury
.
Some governments combine both direct and indirect democratic governance, wherein the citizenry selects representatives to administer day-to-day governance, while also reserving the right govern directly through
popular initiatives
,
referendums
(plebiscites), and the
right of recall
. In a
constitutional democracy
the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits
majority rule
, usually through the provision by all of certain
universal rights
, such as
freedom of speech
or
freedom of association
.
[33]
[34]
Republics
A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter" (
Latin
:
res publica
), not the private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited. The people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.
[36]
A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch.
[37]
[38]
Montesquieu
included both
democracies
, where all the people have a share in rule, and
aristocracies
or
oligarchies
, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.
Other terms used to describe different republics include
democratic republic
,
parliamentary republic
,
semi-presidential republic
,
presidential republic
,
federal republic
,
people's republic
, and
Islamic republic
.
Federalism
Federalism is a political concept in which a
group
of members are bound together by
covenant
with a governing
representative head
. The term "federalism" is also used to describe a system of government in which
sovereignty
is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, variously called states, provinces or otherwise. Federalism is a system based upon democratic principles and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called a
federation
.
[40]
Proponents are often called
federalists
.
Branches
Governments are typically organised into distinct institutions constituting branches of government each with particular
powers
, functions, duties, and responsibilities. The distribution of powers between these institutions differs between governments, as do the functions and number of branches. An independent, parallel distribution of powers between branches of government is the
separation of powers
. A shared, intersecting, or overlapping distribution of powers is the
fusion of powers
.
Governments are often organised into three branches with separate powers: a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary; this is sometimes called the
trias politica
model. However, in
parliamentary
and
semi-presidential systems
, branches of government often intersect, having shared membership and overlapping functions. Many governments have fewer or additional branches, such as an independent
electoral commission
or
auditory
branch.
Party system
Presently, most governments are administered by members of an explicitly constituted
political party
which coordinates the activities of associated government
officials
and
candidates
for office. In a
multiparty system
of government, multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of government offices, typically by competing in
elections
, although the
effective number of parties
may be limited.
A
majority government
is a government by one or more
governing parties
together holding an absolute majority of seats in the parliament, in contrast to a
minority government
in which they have only a plurality of seats and often depend on a
confidence-and-supply
arrangement with other parties. A
coalition government
is one in which multiple parties cooperate to form a government as part of a
coalition agreement
. In a single-party government a single party forms a government without the support of a coalition, as is typically the case with majority governments,
but even a minority government may consist of just one party unable to find a willing coalition partner at the moment.
A state that continuously maintains a single-party government within a (nominally) multiparty system possesses a
dominant-party system
. In a (nondemocratic)
one-party system
a single
ruling party
has the (more-or-less) exclusive right to form the government, and the formation of other parties may be obstructed or illegal. In some cases, a government may have a
non-partisan system
, as is the case with
absolute monarchy
or
non-partisan democracy
.
Maps
Democracy is the most popular form of government with more than half of the nations in the world being democracies-97 of 167 nations as of 2021.
[45]
However the world is becoming more authoritarian with a quarter of the world's population under
democratically backsliding
governments.
[45]
Democracy Index
by the
Economist Intelligence Unit
, 2017
[46]
Full Democracies
9?10
8?9
| Flawed Democracies
7?8
6?7
| Hybrid Regimes
5?6
4?5
| Authoritarian Regimes
3?4
2?3
0?2
|
See also
Notes
- ^
Frederickson 2000
, p. 12, quote:"...conservative southern Democrats viewed warily the potential of New Deal programs to threaten the region's economic dependence on cheap labor while stirring the democratic ambitions of the disfranchised and undermining white supremacy."
- ^
Ancient Greek
:
?ριστοκρατ?α
aristokratia
, from
?ριστο?
aristos
"excellent", and
κρ?το?
kratos
"
power
".
- ^
Conducted by American
think tank
Freedom House
, which is largely funded by the
US government
.
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a
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c
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144367661
.
- Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (2001).
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
. New York: Elsevier Science.
ISBN
978-0-08-043076-8
.
OCLC
43548228
.
Further reading
- de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno
; Smith, Alastair (2012).
The Dictator's Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics
. New York:
PublicAffairs
.
ISBN
978-1610390446
.
OCLC
1026803822
.
- de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno
; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.;
Morrow, James D.
(2003).
The Logic of Political Survival
. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press
.
ISBN
978-0262025461
.
OCLC
475265120
.
- Dobson, William J.
(2013).
The Dictator's Learning Curve: Inside the Global Battle for Democracy
. New York: Anchor.
ISBN
978-0307477552
.
OCLC
849820048
.
- Friedrich, Carl J.;
Brzezinski, Zbigniew K.
(1966) [1965].
Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy
(2nd ed.). New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
ISBN
978-0674895652
.
OCLC
826626632
.
- Krader, Lawrence (1968).
Formation of the State
. Foundations of Modern Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
ISBN
0133294900
.
OCLC
266086412
.
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