The
military history of New Zealand
is an aspect of the
history of New Zealand
that spans several hundred years. When first settled by
M?ori
almost a millennium ago, there was much land and resources, but war began to break out as the country's
carrying capacity
was approached. Initially being fought with close-range weapons of wood and stone, this continued on and off until Europeans arrived, bringing with them new weapons such as
muskets
. Colonisation by
Britain
led to the
New Zealand Wars
in the 19th century in which settler and imperial troops and their M?ori allies fought against other M?ori and a handful of
P?keh?
. In the first half of the 20th century, New Zealanders of all races fought alongside Britain in the
Boer War
and both
World Wars
. In the second half of the century and into this century the
New Zealand Defence Force
has provided token assistance to the United States in several conflicts.
New Zealand
has also contributed
troops
extensively to multilateral
peacekeeping
operations.
M?ori warfare pre-1808
[
edit
]
In
Making Peoples
James Belich
argues that wars were probably uncommon in the few centuries immediately after the arrival of M?ori in New Zealand in about 1280 CE.
[1]
Wars eventually broke out between tribal groups for practical reasons like population pressures, competition for land and natural resources, and the need to protect food supplies. The rise and development of fortified M?ori villages, or "
p?
", in the 16th century suggests growing concerns from M?ori tribes for defending valuable horticultural areas, with 98 per cent of p? situated in these areas. Several military campaigns were also fought for cultural reasons, often linked to the concepts of
mana
and
utu
, with some conflicts beginning because a tribal group wanted to increase tribal or personal mana, or a cultural requirement to make reprisals in response to insults, injury, or trespassing.
[2]
War parties typically used stone or wood weapons designed for hand-to-hand combat. Warriors were often armed with a long-handled staff like a
taiaha
, and a shorter club like a
patu
. Warriors typically only wore a kilt and a
t?tua
, although in some cases, cloaks were worn to shield themselves against spear thrusts.
[3]
Wars were often fought through war parties called a
taua
, which can range from a small group to several hundred people. Larger war parties often travelled in a
waka taua
, or war party canoe. War parties would often employ deception to trick opposing tribes into letting their guard down or draw them out of a p?.
[4]
Battles typically took place in the summer months after tribes had completed their harvest. After the battle, the victors would enslave the prisoners of the defeated people, although in some cases, the prisoners would be killed and eaten. The consequences of the defeated people depended on the closeness between the two groups. In some cases, the victors would marry women from the defeated group, and the tribes would merge.
[5]
The largest battle prior to the introduction of muskets was the
Battle of Hingakaka
in 1807, which involved several thousand combatants.
Warfare on the
Chatham Islands
was nonexistent from the 16th century to the 19th century after the
Moriori
living on the island were able to forge a continuous period of peace. The continuous peace was established after a series of conflicts, when a local chief,
Nunuku-whenua
, declared an end to war, and a permanent restriction on murder and cannibalism.
[2]
Early contact period
[
edit
]
Musket Wars (1818?1830s)
[
edit
]
The introduction of muskets in the early 19th century led to the Musket Wars, a series of battles and wars among M?ori tribes from 1818 to 1840. The Musket Wars was the most geographically widespread conflict in New Zealand, affecting all parts of the
North
and
South
islands as well as the Chatham Islands.
[6]
Despite the conflict's name, muskets didn't fundamentally change tribal relations, with historians like
Angela Ballara
pointing out that many of the conflicts during the Musket Wars would have occurred regardless ? albeit at a less destructive scale. The introduction of potatoes to New Zealand had a much greater effect on how wars were fought in the region.
[7]
The introduction of potatoes enabled more men to fight, as potatoes were an easier crop to harvest and provided more food per hectare than traditionally grown crops. The surplus in food stores also provided war parties the opportunity to travel greater distances to fight their wars. European ships also extended the reach war parties were able to travel.
[6]
Although the introduction of muskets provided war parties with the opportunity to fight at a distance, there was no immediate change in how wars were conducted, with changes in weaponry and strategy taking place in phases.
[6]
However, it did transform agricultural practices, as economic production shifted to finance the acquisition of muskets from European traders until tribal armouries were filled. Strategies also changed as war parties adopted
volley fire
tactics, and "gunfighter p?" were developed in response to the use of muskets.
[8]
Ng?puhi
were the first M?ori tribes to use muskets in a tribal conflict. At the
Battle of Moremonui
around 1807?08, a
Ng?ti Wh?tua
war party armed with traditional weapons successfully ambushed a Ng?puhi war party armed with muskets. Although they were defeated, a Ng?puhi
rangatira
,
Hongi Hika
, became convinced of the musket's shock value and worked to stockpile more muskets.
[9]
By 1818, Hongi had acquired enough muskets to lead a taua to raid villages along the
Bay of Plenty
.
[10]
[9]
Their campaign around the Bay of Plenty and a subsequent campaign in the
Coromandel Peninsula
in 1821 resulted in the capture of 4,000 slaves. Most of these slaves were put to work dressing flax to be traded for additional muskets.
[9]
In 1825, Hongi defeated Ng?ti Wh?tua at Kaipara.
[10]
However, by the mid-1820s, Ng?puhi dominance had begun to wane, as they did not have the infrastructure to maintain these large-scale campaigns and other tribes had begun to adapt to
gunpowder warfare
.
[10]
Hongi's death in 1827 hastened the end of large-scale tribal conflicts, as other Ng?puhi rangatira unable to inspire the number of warriors Hongi.
[9]
[10]
Ng?puhi were also weakened by an
inter-hap? conflict
, fought between northern and southern Ng?puhi hap? over control of
Koror?reka
, an important centre for European trade.
[10]
[11]
Nonetheless, Ng?puhi's stockpiling of muskets and their subsequent military campaigns had altered the balance of power and prompted an arms race in the region, as tribes who felt threatened stockpiled their own muskets and launched their own campaigns to secure their territories.
[12]
Waikato Tainui
launched several campaigns against tribes around
Hawke's Bay
and
Taranaki
in the mid-1820s to the 1830s, successfully securing their territory from northern incursion, and expelling
Ng?ti Toa
,
Ng?ti Maru
, and a large number of
Ng?ti Raukawa
from
Waikato
.
[13]
Ng?ti Toa and their allies also embarked on several campaigns following their expulsion from the Waikato coast in 1821. Led by
Te Rauparaha
, Ng?ti Toa migrated to the
K?piti Coast
, an area seen as desirable due to its proximity to European trade, and captured the
K?piti Island
from the
Mua?poko
. The desirability of the location led to several skirmishes culminating in the battle of Waiorua in 1824, in which Ng?ti Toa emerged victorious. Wanting to extend his trading strength, Te Rauparaha launched several campaigns against the tribes of the South Island and the Chatham Islands.
[14]
Campaigns to the Chatham Islands resulted in the
Moriori genocide
, where a population of about 2,000 was reduced to 101 by 1862.
[15]
These conflicts began to subside in the 1830s, as tribal economies could no longer support the large-scale campaigns fought in the 1820s. Many tribes had also become well-armed, making quick and decisive battles less feasible. It is estimated that 18,000 to 20,000 civilians and combatants were killed during the conflict.
[6]
[7]
The Musket Wars saw tribal boundaries redrawn, which later became codified by the
M?ori Land Court
, which determined that boundaries would be set as they were in 1840 when the
Treaty of Waitangi
was signed.
[6]
Early British-M?ori engagements
[
edit
]
The Harriet Affair in 1834 was the first engagement fought between the M?ori and the British. A British expedition was dispatched to Taranaki by the governor of New South Wales,
Richard Bourke
, to rescue the wife and children of
John Guard
and punish their kidnappers. The expedition was subsequently criticised for the use of excessive force in a British House of Commons report in 1835.
[16]
[17]
Wairau Affray (1843)
[
edit
]
The Wairau Affray was an early engagement between Ng?ti Toa and British settlers in
Nelson
and the
New Zealand Company
.
[18]
After the company refused to adhere to Ng?ti Toa orders to halt the survey in lands that were not included in the company's purchases in 1839, Te Rauparaha moved into the area and burnt the surveyor's shelters. Sensing an opportunity, Nelson settlers ordered the arrest of Te Rauparaha and
Te Rangihaeata
on charges of arson and sent an armed posse to arrest the two.
[19]
The armed posse converged on Ng?ti Toa party on 17 June 1843. Rising tensions between the two parties erupted into a skirmish that resulted in the death of nine settlers and two M?ori. Four more settlers were killed during a disorganised retreat, and the remaining nine were captured and later executed.
[19]
The governor of New Zealand,
Robert FitzRoy
, resisted calls from settlers to bring those responsible for the posse's death to justice, and instead ruled that the New Zealand Company had provoked the Ng?ti Toa by continuing the survey even though the Nelson settlers lacked any legitimate claims to land beyond Tasman Bay. The British
Colonial Office
approved of FitzRoy's response, as they did not want to incur the expense of a military campaign against Ng?ti Toa.
[20]
Colonial period
[
edit
]
New Zealand Wars (1845?1872)
[
edit
]
The New Zealand Wars were a series of conflicts from 1845 to 1872, involving some iwi M?ori and government forces, the latter including British and colonial troops and their M?ori allies. The term
New Zealand Wars
is the most common name for the series of conflicts, a term used as early as 1920.
[21]
The
Land Wars
was another popular term for the series of conflicts, as the cause for these wars partially stemmed from land disputes. Other terms used since the late 1960s include the Anglo-M?ori wars, the New Zealand civil wars, and the sovereignty wars. M?ori names for the conflict include Ng? pakanga o Aotearoa (the New Zealand wars) and Te riri P?keh? (the white man’s anger).
[21]
The first series of wars occurred in 1845, although the most sustained and widespread clashes occurred in the early 1860s between British imperial forces and the
M?ori King Movement
.
[21]
By 1865, around 10,000 imperial soldiers had been deployed to New Zealand due to these sustained conflicts. However, by the end of 1864, in response to mounting British criticism over the colonial government's attitudes to the M?ori and concerns over the cost of maintaining imperial troops, the colonial government implemented a "self-reliant" policy, aiming to replace imperial troops with local forces and M?ori auxiliaries.
[23]
Most British troops departed New Zealand in 1866 and 1867, although the last British regiment did not depart until 1870.
[23]
[24]
From 1864 to 1872, fighting ensued between colonial forces and their M?ori allies against followers of M?ori prophetic leaders.
[21]
As imperial forces scaled back their involvement, the burden of fighting on the Crown side increasingly fell on colonial troops and the
k?papa
, many of whom were M?ori who were committed to traditional Christianity and resisted the K?ngitangap? movement.
[24]
It is estimated that over 500 British and colonial troops, along with approximately 250 k?papa, died during the New Zealand Wars. On the opposing side, around 2,000 were estimated to have died. M?ori that fought against the colonial government lost a substantial amount of land, with about 1,000,000 hectares (2,500,000 acres) of
land confiscated by the Crown
. Reparations for land confiscations did not begin until the 1990s.
[25]
Flagstaff War (1845?1846)
[
edit
]
The first conflict of the New Zealand Wars began after conflict broke out between Ng?puhi led by
H?ne Heke
and colonial forces and Ng?puhi led by
T?mati W?ka Nene
. The cause for the conflict included Ng?puhi economic concerns over the relocation of the
Colony of New Zealand
's capital to
Auckland
, and that the Crown had exceeded its authority. Heke and his supporters chopped down a flagstaff at Koror?reka to assert this point. However, other hap? of Ng?puhi led by W?ka Nene sided with the British. In March 1845, Heke
attacked the British forces
at
Koror?reka
, which resulted in
P?keh?
evacuation of the settlement. The British military increased its presence in the colony after Koror?reka, dispatching the
58th (Rutlandshire) Regiment of Foot
, and establishing a volunteer militia in Auckland. In April, a British force made up of regulars and volunteers left Auckland to reassert British sovereignty. After arriving at Koror?reka, British ships shelled nearby M?ori settlements.
[26]
The first major engagement between the British and Heke's supporters was the
Battle of Puketutu
, where British forces failed to storm Heke's p? stronghold. Heke withdrew to nearby Te Ahuahu after the battle to dislodge Ng?puhi forces allied with the British from a p?, although was unsuccessful. In July, a 600-strong British force
attacked a p? near ?haeawai
although they later retreated. In January 1846, British forces shelled a new M?ori fortification at
Ruapekapeka
. After the battle, Heke agreed to peace terms with W?ka Nene, ending the conflict.
[26]
Hutt Valley and Whanganui campaigns (1846?1848)
[
edit
]
Land disputes between M?ori and British settlers in
Wellington
led to tensions that occasionally broke out into violence. In March 1846, British troops clashed with
Ng?ti Tama
and
Ng?ti Rangatahi
in
Hutt Valley
, prompting Governor
George Grey
to declare
martial law
in Wellington.
[27]
Upon hearing that a taua was approaching Wellington, Grey extended martial law to
Whanganui
, and urged
Te ?ti Awa
to intercept them, which they agreed to do. Grey then moved to arrest Te Rauparaha, whom he believed was responsible for the attacks in the Hutt Valley. In August, Ng?ti Toa, Ng?ti Tama, Ng?ti Rangatahi and their allies withdrew from the area towards
P?uatahanui
, although they were pursued by British troops and their M?ori allies at the
Battle of Battle Hill
. The Ng?ti Toa, Ng?ti Tama, Ng?ti Rangatahi eventually reached Poroutawhao, after the British ended their pursuit.
[27]
Hostilities erupted again after the British stationed troops in Whanganui, despite receiving warnings not to. Tensions were further exacerbated after Whanganui rangatira Hapurona Ng?rangi was shot, and followers of
Te Mamaku
attacked an isolated farm in
Matarawa
valley and killed four residents. In May 1847, Whanganui M?ori under Te Mamaku attacked a British settlement, although British troops and the town's settlers were able to withhold the attack by taking shelter in a
stockade
. In July, British forces moved out from the stockade to engage Te Mamaku's force in an inconclusive battle that resulted in M?ori withdrawal. Grey pressed for peace and reached an agreement with Te Mamaku in February 1848.
[27]
First Taranaki War (1860?1861)
[
edit
]
The First Taranaki War originated from land disputes as settlers moved into M?ori land. A young rangatira, Te Teira, offered 240 hectares (600 acres) of land near the mouth of the
Waitara River
, although he faced objections from a more senior rangatira,
Wiremu K?ngi
.
Gore Browne
, the governor of New Zealand, accepted the offer from Te Teira, with surveying of the land commencing by February 1860. After surveyors were interrupted by supporters of Wiremu K?ngi, British troops moved into the area and a
blockhouse
was built. In response, the Te ?ti Awa erected a p? overlooking the British position. In March 1860, the British attacked the p?, leading to its subsequent abandonment by the M?ori.
[28]
A similar situation occurred 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) south-west of New Plymouth, where a stockade was built by the British, and Ng?ti Ruanui and their supporters built a p? overlooking the stockade. British forces eventually captured the p? at the
Battle of Waireka
, although some historians claim that the p? had already been abandoned by its defenders. The British subsequently attacked Te ?ti Awa forces at Puketakauere p? in June 1860, although later withdrew to Waitara after sustaining heavy losses.
[28]
After the British defeat at Puketakauere, Major-General
Thomas Pratt
took over command of the British force. In September, Pratt organised several raids against Te ?ti Awa strongholds along the upper Waitara River and defeated a Ng?ti H?ua war party in November. In January 1861, Pratt attacked
Huirangi
, causing Te ?ti Awa to retreat upriver. Pratt continued to advance against Te ?ti Awa, constructing a series of
redoubts
as he pushed further. After a
night attack
ended in disaster for the M?ori, Te ?ti Awa set up a defensive line of p? to protect the Pukerangiora p?. By February, the British dug trenches to close in on the p? and directed heavy artillery fire on the defensive line. However, the conflict ended a month later in March when a senior figure in the M?ori King Movement,
Wiremu Tamihana
, brokered a truce.
[28]
Invasion of the Waikato (1863?1864)
[
edit
]
Despite the truce at Taranaki, the colonial government was keen to punish participants of the M?ori King Movement who took part in the Taranaki War, and faced pressure from settlers to make the Waikato region suitable for their settlement. In 1862, work on the
Great South Road
began, allowing colonial forces to prepare for an invasion of the Waikato region. On 9 July 1863, a proclamation directed Waikato M?ori living in government-controlled areas south of Auckland to take an oath of allegiance. Anorgwe proclamation was issued days later, warning those who resisted would forfeit their right to their lands.
[29]
On 12 July, British forces crossed the border into lands belonging to the M?ori King Movement and soon began to advance along the Waikato River. However, M?ori attacks from behind the British front lines, and attacks against forward depots like
Camerontown
slowed the British advance. The Waikato M?ori initially retreated to the p? at
Meremere
, although they later abandoned it after the British managed to land upriver to the rear of the p?.
[29]
After Meremere, the British shifted their attention to the K?ngitangap? at
Rangiriri
. The
Battle of Rangiriri
began on 20 November with a bombardment on the p?. The British assaulted the main redoubt of the p?, although were repulsed each time. However, the British seized the main line of retreat from the p?, preventing any further reinforcements from reaching the p? by nightfall. The p? was subsequently surrendered at dawn.
[30]
The British proceeded to occupy
Ng?ruaw?hia
, prompting K?ngitanga forces to construct fortifications centred on P?terangi. Realizing that his force could only take the fortifications with high casualties, the British commander, Lieutenant-General
Duncan Cameron
, opted instead to move around the southern flank of defences to reach food-producing villages like
Rangiaowhia
. Guided by local M?ori friendly to the British, the force raided Rangiaowhia in February 1864, prompting the defenders at P?terangi to withdraw and allow the British to occupy the p? unopposed. K?ngitanga forces attempted to reestablish their defensive lines along the Hairini ridge, but the British rushed troops to the area, forcing their further retreat.
[30]
A M?ori force led by Ng?ti Maniapoto leader
Rewi Maniapoto
began to construct defensive
earthworks
at ?r?kau to stop the British. After spotting this construction effort, the British dispatched a force to oppose them, although their initial attacks were repulsed. However, as a British breakthrough into the p? seemed imminent, its defenders decided to abandon it on 2 April. The
Battle of ?r?kau
was the deadliest of the New Zealand Wars, with 17 British and up to 160 M?ori killed during the engagement, most of the M?ori deaths occurring during their withdrawal. After ?r?kau, the K?ngitanga withdrew behind another defensive line along the P?niu River. Unwilling to pursue K?ngitanga forces further, and having achieved their goals in Waikato, the British force returned to Auckland.
[30]
During the invasion, the British also launched a
campaign in Tauranga
to disrupt the flow of arms to Waikato. To resist further British encroachment,
Rawiri Puhirake
assembled a force of 250 M?ori at Gate P?. On 29 April, the British
attacked the p?
. However, the attack was repulsed, as its defenders were able to fire at the British through a network of underground trenches within the p?. The M?ori abandoned Gate P? the next day and moved to construct another p? at Te Ranga. However, they were caught off-guard and defeated by the British on June 21.
[31]
Campaigns in Taranaki and East Coast (1864?1866)
[
edit
]
By the mid-1860s, several M?ori prophetic movements, like the
Pai M?rire
, emerged and imbued in their followers a renewed commitment to expel the Europeans. The first area impacted by these new religious movements was Taranaki. In April 1864, a small British force was attacked by Pai M?rire followers. In May 1864, a Pai M?rire taua moved to attack Whanganui villages, although they were intercepted at
Moutoa Island
by Whanganui M?ori.
[24]
In January 1865, Governor Grey dispatched a force to South Taranaki to confront 'hostile' M?ori in South Taranaki. This force eventually encountered a p? of
Weraroa
, situated on a cliff-like embankment above
Wait?tara
. Although their commander, Lieutenant-General Cameron, preferred to isolate the p?, Grey disagreed, leading to the former's resignation. Major-General
Trevor Chute
replaced Cameron and departed Whanganui in December. From December to February, Chute's force conducted a route march aimed at destroying Taranaki M?ori capacity for war by burning villages and livestock.
[24]
Despite these early setbacks, Pai M?rire influence spread across the North Island. After several killings by Pai M?rire adherents, colonial troops were dispatched to
?p?tiki
on 8 September 1865, forcing Pai M?rire followers to retreat. Pai M?rire followers subsequently occupied Waerenga-a-hika (near
Gisborne
) until colonial forces besieged the area in November. The last Pai M?rire attacks in the area occurred in October 1866, when two groups of Pai M?rire followers were intercepted near
Napier
.
[24]
T?tokowaru's War (1868?1869)
[
edit
]
From 1868 to 1869,
T?tokowaru
, a
Ng? Ruahine
Methodist preacher influenced by the Pai M?rire, led a campaign against the confiscation of M?ori land. In June 1868, T?tokowaru’s forces attacked a small redoubt manned by the Armed Constabulary. In retaliation, the Armed Constabulary sent an expedition to attack the T?tokowaru’s village, Te Ngutu-o-te-manu, although the results were inconclusive. A second expedition was launched in September, although the force was defeated as it approached the village. After these defeats the Armed Constabulary abandoned the Waih? redoubt and withdrew to
Waverley
.
[32]
In November 1868, T?tokowaru's forces repelled an attack by Crown forces and M?ori under the leadership of
Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui
at
Moturoa
. Following the engagement, T?tokowaru moved to a p? near Nukumaru and began building massive earthworks. The Armed Constabulary prepared for an assault on the p? in February 1869, although it was found abandoned. The p? was abandoned after a major disagreement had arisen among its defenders and the decision was made to withdraw, effectively ending T?tokowaru’s campaign.
[32]
Te Kooti's War (1868?1872)
[
edit
]
In July 1868,
Te Kooti
, the
Ringat?
founder, and 297 of his followers seized a schooner and forced its crew to sail them south of Poverty Bay, prompting colonial authorities to seek his capture. Te Kooti forces engaged with Crown forces several times, including at
Ruakituri
in August, and subsequently attacked Matawhero in November, killing 60 people including 30 M?ori. Te Kooti then retreated to the hilltop fortress Ng?tapa. On 5 December, the fortress was unsuccessfully attacked by the Armed Constabulary and Ng?ti Porou with Wairoa allies led by
R?pata Wahawaha
. The fortress was besieged again the next month. On the third day of the siege, Te Kooti's forces attempted a breakout, but they were detected and subsequently pursued by Crown forces.
[33]
Te Kooti's remaining force escaped into
Te Urewera
, closely followed by M?ori and Armed Constabulary units. Despite participating in multiple skirmishes and raids, Te Kooti managed to elude his pursuers in the ensuing months. Te Kooti eventually built a redoubt at Te P?rere. On 4 October 1869, the Armed Constabulary and allied M?ori attacked the redoubt in the
Battle of Te P?rere
. Te Kooti was defeated but managed to elude his pursuers again. However, Te Kooti's followers were no longer able to defend a fixed position again, instead opting to move ahead of their pursuers. Te Kooti engaged with Crown forces at
Te H?pua
on 1 September 1871 and at Mangaone on 4 February 1872. However, by 1872, Te Kooti's forces had dwindled in size. Te Kooti eventually took refuge in the M?ori king’s stronghold of Tokangamutu, bringing his campaign to an end.
[33]
Boer War (1899?1902)
[
edit
]
The Second Boer War was a conflict between the British Empire and the
Boer republics
in South Africa, a culmination of longstanding tensions between the two sides. On 28 September 1899, two weeks before the start of the conflict, the
New Zealand House of Representatives
approved the formation of a 200-man
mounted rifle
contingent for service in South Africa, in a show of colonial solidarity aimed at deterring the Boers from fighting.
[34]
The public responded enthusiastically to the war and calls for volunteers, with opposition to the conflict being minimal.
[35]
[36]
Premier
Richard Seddon
's goal for New Zealand to be the first colonial contingent in South Africa was realised when the first New Zealand contingent arrived in Cape Town on 23 November.
[37]
After its arrival, the First New Zealand Contingent was attached to Major-General
John French's
cavalry division.
[38]
The first significant action and death of a New Zealand soldier occurred on 18 December at Jasfontein. In January 1900, a detachment of the British-New Zealander detachment repelled a Boer attack on the Slingersfontein farm.
[38]
[39]
The First Contingent continued its service with French's division, relieving the
besieged town of Kimberley
on 15 February. The British advance continued, and
Bloemfontein
, the capital of the
Orange Free State
, was occupied by March.
Transvaal
was annexed by the British on 25 October, after the decisive
Battle of Paardeberg
. At Paardeberg, the Second and Third New Zealand Contingents supported British forces under the command of Major-General
Arthur Paget
.
[38]
After the events at Paardeberg, the conflict shifted into a protracted guerrilla warfare phase, with the Boer commandos operating on the
veldt
. To counter this, the British implemented a strategy to use mobile columns to track down the Boers, while many Boer families were placed in
concentration camps
and their livestock confiscated or culled.
[39]
[40]
The Six and Seventh New Zealand contingents were involved in these operations.
[39]
In 1901, the British adopted a new strategy to leave Boer women and children on their former farms to burden Boer men. Blockhouses linked by nearly barbed wire fences were erected across the countryside. This approach compelled Boers to surrender as guerillas were driven towards these blockhouses. On 23 February 1902, the last major engagement involving New Zealanders took place during one of these blockhouse drives.
[40]
The battle was the most costly action for New Zealand during the war with 90 men killed and 24 wounded.
[39]
New Zealand sent 10 contingents, a total of approximately 6,500 men and 8,000 horses. The first five contingents embarked for South Africa in the first six months of the war. The last three contingents arrived in South Africa near the end of the conflict and saw limited action. The first two contingents were paid for by the New Zealand government, while the third and fourth contingents were paid for through community contributions. The subsequent six contingents were paid for by the British government.
[41]
A total of 230 New Zealanders died during the war, 71 were killed in action, 133 died from diseases, and 26 were killed in accidents.
[39]
The majority of New Zealanders who participated in the war were P?keh?. However, there was M?ori support for the war, with Seddon and M?ori leaders offering to send a M?ori-manned contingent. However, the British government declined offers of M?ori-manned contingents, as they believed 'native' troops should not participate in a "white man's war". However, some M?ori individuals managed to enlist under anglicised names.
[42]
[41]
New Zealand women also played a significant role in funding the war, organising fundraisers like the Girls' and Ladies' Khaki Corps in lieu of government funding limitations.
[36]
[41]
[43]
New Zealand's military institutions saw significant changes because of the war, with enlistment in the
Volunteer Force
increasing to 17,000 in 1901. The cadet system was also centralised under the
Department of Education
in 1902, with military drills being made compulsory several years later.
[44]
World Wars and the interwar period
[
edit
]
First World War (1914?1918)
[
edit
]
On 4 August 1914, the British Empire, including New Zealand, entered the
First World War
as a part of the
Entente powers
. As a
dominion
of the Empire, the New Zealand government had control over what the country would provide to the imperial war effort.
[45]
Major General
Alexander Godley
served as the commander of the NZEF. Major General
Alfred William Robin
commanded New Zealand Military Forces at home throughout the conflict as commandant and was pivotal in ensuring the ongoing provision of reinforcements and support to the New Zealand military forces within New Zealand.
[46]
The total number of troops and nurses from New Zealand military forces to serve overseas during the conflict was 103,000, from a population of just over a million.
[47]
About 42 per cent of men of military age served in the NZEF.
[47]
[48]
Approximately 32,000 soldiers sent overseas were
conscripts
, with New Zealand introducing military conscription in 1916.
[48]
The conflict was the first to see M?ori and Pacific Islanders officially serve with the New Zealand Army in an overseas campaign. In total, 2,227 M?ori and 500
Pacific islanders
served with New Zealand forces.
[49]
[51]
In addition to New Zealand military forces, New Zealanders also served in British and Australian military units. About 700 New Zealanders served with the British
Royal Flying Corps
, while another 500 New Zealanders served in the Royal Navy.
[48]
Throughout the war, 16,697 New Zealanders were killed and 41,317 were wounded, a 58 per cent casualty rate. A further thousand men died within five years of the war's end as a result of injuries sustained, and 507 died whilst training in New Zealand between 1914 and 1918.
[47]
Pacific theatre
[
edit
]
The first wartime action undertaken by New Zealand was to carry out a request from the British to seize
German Samoa
. On 29 August, the
New Zealand Expeditionary Force
(NZEF) landed in German Samoa unopposed, beginning the New Zealand
occupation of German Samoa
.
[52]
Although most of the fighting occurred outside New Zealand, a German
merchant raider
,
SMS
Wolf
, laid
naval mines
in New Zealand waters that resulted in the sinking of two ships and the death of 26 New Zealanders.
[48]
Middle Eastern theatre
[
edit
]
The first NZEF contingent to set sail for Europe left New Zealand on 16 October 1914, with plans to meet the
Australian Imperial Force
(AIF) and set across the Indian Ocean together to join the
British Expeditionary Force
in France.
[52]
However, as they sailed the Indian Ocean, the
Ottoman entry into the war
changed the strategic situation and threatened an imperial lifeline, the
Suez Canal
. As a result, the NZEF and AIF disembarked in Egypt. During their time there, elements of the NZEF participated in the defence of the canal during an
Ottoman raid
in January?February 1915.
[45]
As they were in the region, the NZEF and AIF were drawn into Allied plans to capture the
Dardanelles Strait
so naval forces could directly attack the Ottoman capital,
Constantinople
. After several Allied
naval operations in the Dardanelles
failed, Allied forces landed on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915. The
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
landed at Anzac Cove
and took responsibility for the northern sector of the battlefield. However, as Turkish defences made any significant Allied advance not possible, the fighting quickly transitioned into trench warfare. In August, Allied forces launched an offensive to break the stalemate, although it ended in failure. Allied troops were eventually evacuated from the peninsula in January 1916. During the Gallipoli campaign, 2,779 New Zealanders died.
[53]
The Gallipoli campaign has impacted New Zealand's military culture since the war. The date of the landing at ANZAC Cove is commemorated in New Zealand as a public holiday, known as
Anzac Day
, to commemorate the country's war dead. The idea of the
Anzac legend
, which focused on the prowess of Australian and New Zealand soldiers, was also formed at Gallipoli.
[54]
After Gallipoli, several New Zealand units remained engaged in further operations against the Ottomans. Following their evacuation from Gallipoli, the
New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
joined Australian mounted units to form the
ANZAC Mounted Division
, and took part in the
Sinai and Palestine campaign
. During the Sinai and Palestine campaign, 543 New Zealanders died. A cruiser of the
New Zealand Naval Forces
,
HMS
Philomel
, was also deployed to the
Red Sea
.
[53]
Western Front
[
edit
]
By 1916, NZEF efforts were reoriented to the Western Front, with the
New Zealand Division
landing in France in April 1916, and its expeditionary headquarters established at
Sling Camp
in the
Salisbury Plain Training Area
.
[48]
In September 1916, the Division took part in the third major phase of the
Battle of the Somme
, assisting with the capture of
Flers
during the
Battle of Flers?Courcelette
.
[55]
In 1917, units from New Zealand provided support in several campaigns, including the
New Zealand Tunnelling Company
during the
Battle of Arras
in April, and the New Zealand Division during the
Battle of Messines
in June. In late September, New Zealand forces were committed to support imperial forces at the
Third Battle of Ypres
and took part in two major attacks in October, the
Battle of Broodseinde
and
First Battle of Passchendaele
. The former was relatively successful for New Zealand forces while the latter engagement was a disaster that saw the highest one-day death toll suffered by New Zealand forces overseas.
[55]
In March 1918, New Zealand forces took part in defending the British lines during
Operation Michael
, the campaign that began
German Spring Offensive
.
[56]
On 4 November, during the Allied
Hundred Days Offensive
, the New Zealand Division captured
captured Le Quesnoy
after an assault led by Lieutenant
Leslie Cecil Lloyd Averill
. The day was the Division's most successful on the Front, as they pushed east and advanced 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and captured 2,000 German soldiers and 60 field guns.
[57]
After the
armistice of 11 November 1918
, the New Zealand Division took part in the occupation of the German
Rhineland
until April 1919, when the Division was transferred back to the UK and subsequently disbanded. The process of repatriating NZEF troops from the UK back to New Zealand did not conclude until March 1920.
[56]
Deployment to Fiji (1920)
[
edit
]
In February 1920, New Zealand deployed a force of 56 soldiers to Fiji to support the civilian authorities during a period of civil unrest. Under the command of Major
Edward Puttick
, the small force deployed to Fiji on the government steamer Tutanekai and remained in Fiji until 18 April 1920. The force was the first peacetime deployment overseas by New Zealand military forces.
[58]
Second World War (1939?1945)
[
edit
]
In September 1939, the New Zealand government issued a declaration of war against Germany, backdated to the same moment the
British declaration of war
was made on 3 September.
[59]
Hostilities lasted until August 1945 with the capitulation of Japan. However, several New Zealand units were deployed to Japan as late as 1948, as a part of the
British Commonwealth Occupation Force
in Japan.
[60]
[61]
Around 140,000 New Zealanders served during the war, with 11,928 New Zealanders killed during the conflict.
[62]
Approximately 104,000 New Zealanders served with the
2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force
(2NZEF), with the rest serving with other New Zealand or British military services.
[62]
Approximately 7,000 New Zealanders also served in the British Royal Navy and
Fleet Air Arm
. Another 12,000 New Zealanders served in the
Royal Air Force
. By the war's end, seven RAF "New Zealand" squadrons were formed, and more than 6,000 New Zealanders served with
RAF Bomber Command
.
[63]
In addition to Mediterranean and Pacific campaigns undertaken by New Zealand military forces, New Zealanders serving in the British Armed Forces also took part in the
Battle of Britain
, the
Battle of the Atlantic
, the
Normandy landings
, and the
Western Allied invasion of Germany
.
[63]
[61]
Early naval operations
[
edit
]
The
New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy
(later renamed the
Royal New Zealand Navy
in 1941)
[64]
was among the earliest units to engage German forces, with
HMS
Achilles
leaving for South American waters when the war began. In December 1939,
Achilles
helped destroy the German
pocket battleship
Admiral Graf Spee
at the
Battle of the River Plate
.
[59]
In 1940, after the fall of France, New Zealand aided French colonies in the Pacific aligned with
Free France
and dispatched the cruiser
Achilles
to French Polynesia.
[65]
The presence of German merchant raiders in the South Pacific resulted in the sinking of New Zealand merchant vessels and casualties among New Zealand seamen clearing enemy mines in local waters during the war.
[63]
Mediterranean and Middle East theatre
[
edit
]
The 2NZEF was formed with Major-General
Bernard Freyberg
assuming command of the force Training echelons of 2NZEF began to set sail for Egypt in January 1940.
[59]
The 2NZEF planned to reassemble in Egypt before continuing onto France, however, these plans fell through after the
fall of France
in June. The fall of France prompted the introduction of conscription in July 1940, to bolster the size of 2NZEF. A contingent from 2NZEF was dispatched to the United Kingdom, to be made available for the defence of the islands during the Battle of Britain. In late 1940, a few 2NZEF units participated
Operation Compass
, the British offensive against
Italian Libya
.
[63]
In early 1941, a British force, which included the 2NZEF units sent to the United Kingdom, was dispatched to Egypt, uniting with other 2NZEF units that had assembled there. The
2nd New Zealand Division
was then sent to Greece to bolster the country's defences in the lead-up to the
German invasion of Greece
. However, the subsequent German invasion forced the British force into retreat, and 2NZEF units were evacuated from the mainland by April 1941. The Division was then repositioned to Crete, with Major-General Freyberg taking command of all Allied forces on the island. On 20 May,
German airborne units assaulted Crete
. After an Allied counterattack failed, Allied positions became untenable and the island's defenders were evacuated. During the Greek and Crete campaigns, 982 New Zealanders were killed, and 4,006 were taken prisoner.
[66]
From the rest of 1941 to 1943, the 2nd New Zealand Division took part in
British Eighth Army
's operations against Axis forces during the
North African campaign
. It was involved in
Operation Crusader
to relieve the
siege of Tobruk
in November 1941. From February to June 1942, the Division was stationed in Syria, a recently captured
Vichy French
territory. After a series of Axis counter-offensives in North Africa, the Division was recalled to Egypt and helped stop the Axis advance during the
First Battle of El Alamein
in July 1942, and the
Second Battle of El Alamein
in October?November. After the Axis defeat at El Alamein, Allied forces
pursued them across North Africa to Tunisia
, where Axis forces surrendered in May 1943. In total, 2,989 New Zealanders died, over 7,000 were wounded, and 4,041 were taken prisoner during the North African campaign.
[67]
In October 1943, the 2nd New Zealand Division was deployed to Italy and took part in several engagements during the
Italian campaign
, including the
Battle of Monte Cassino
in 1944, and the
Operation Grapeshot
in 1945.
[61]
In May 1945, the Division moved into
Trieste
to forestall its occupation by
Yugoslav Partisans
. A tense standoff between New Zealand and partisan forces took place for several weeks before the Yugoslavs withdrew.
[68]
In total, 2,003 New Zealand soldiers died in the Italian campaign.
[61]
Pacific War
[
edit
]
After the Japanese attacks on Allied territories in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, New Zealand sent an additional infantry brigade to reinforce Fiji. The question of recalling the 2nd New Zealand Division from the Mediterranean in light of the Japanese offensive was raised. However, as the
Imperial Japanese Navy
was present in the Indian Ocean, it was determined that the deployment of US forces to New Zealand would be a safer alternative. The first US soldiers arrived in June 1942, with 80,000 US soldiers having been posted in the country by the war's end.
[69]
Although the Japanese had no plans to invade New Zealand, they did aim to cut the country off from Allied forces. However, these plans were thwarted in mid-1942, following the US naval victories at the
Coral Sea
and
Midway
. As a result of these victories, Japanese incursions into New Zealand waters were limited to submarines, which did no damage. New Zealand supported the American counter-offensive during the
Guadalcanal campaign
and placed its military forces at the disposal of the
South Pacific Area
command.
[70]
New Zealand's military forces also partook in the
Solomon Islands campaign
. The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) dispatched the cruisers
HMNZS
Leander
and
Achilles
successively to the Solomon Islands, although both were damaged by enemy action. By 1945, there were 8,000 airmen of the
Royal New Zealand Air Force
(RNZAF) serving in the Solomons. The
3rd New Zealand Division
was deployed to the Solomon Islands, although manpower issues in New Zealand eventually forced the Division's withdrawal and disbandment in 1944.
[70]
During the latter stages of the Pacific War, RNZN cruisers
Achilles
and
HMNZS
Gambia
were deployed to Japanese waters as a part of the
British Pacific Fleet
. After the
surrender of Japan
in 1945, New Zealand deployed both an air force squadron and an infantry brigade to Japan. This occupation force, known as
J Force
, consisted of 12,000 New Zealand personnel, and remained in Japan until 1948.
[61]
Cold War era
[
edit
]
The
Cold War
was a period of geopolitical tension between the
Eastern
and
Western
blocs that lasted for nearly the entire latter half of the 20th century, from the end of the Second World War to the
dissolution of the Soviet Union
in 1991. Many of the conflicts New Zealand was involved in during this period were the result of this tension and/or
decolonisation
.
[71]
New Zealand largely supported the Western Bloc throughout this period.
[68]
New Zealand entered into several mutual defence treaties based in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, including the
Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty
(ANZUS Treaty) in 1951, and the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO) in 1954. The former was a defence pact between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States, while the latter was a defence pact between New Zealand and several other countries with Southeast Asian territories.
[72]
New Zealand's participation in SEATO, as well as select conflicts, formed part of New Zealand's "forward defence" strategy, which aimed to contain the threat of the Eastern Bloc by preventing the spread of the communism in decolonised nations like Malaysia and Singapore.
[73]
[74]
To support these commitments, compulsory military training was reimposed in 1949, following a referendum that strongly supported its reintroduction.
[71]
Conscripts were never sent to battle zones in this period, although many opted to continue their military careers and fight in Malaysia, Vietnam and other theatres of conflict.
[60]
During the early periods of the Cold War, New Zealand provided an infantry division to help bolster British positions in the Middle East. However, these forces were eventually scaled back as New Zealand's defence strategy shifted from the Middle East to Southeast Asia.
[72]
From 1949 to 1951, a flight of
No. 41 Squadron RNZAF
was based in the
colony of Singapore
, and was attached to the
RAF Far East Air Force
, a unit that flew regular sorties to
British Hong Kong
.
[75]
Korean War (1950?1953)
[
edit
]
New Zealand was one of the first states to answer the
United Nations Security Council
's call for combat assistance at the outbreak of the
Korean War
. Two Royal New Zealand Navy frigates were dispatched to Japan and later took part in the
Battle of Inchon
in September 1950.
[76]
In January 1951, a contingent of New Zealand soldiers, known as
Kayforce
, landed in Korea as a part of
British Commonwealth Forces Korea
. Kayforce was made up of the
16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery
and smaller ancillary units.
[77]
In April 1951, during the
Battle of Kapyong
, the
27th British Commonwealth Brigade
fought a successful defence against a Chinese division, with New Zealand gunners providing vital artillery support to Allied forces.
[77]
In late-1951, New Zealand gunners provided artillery support for
Operation Commando
and the
Second Battle of Maryang-san
. By the end of 1951, New Zealand had increased its commitment to the conflict, bolstering the number of troops in Kayforce in response to the establishment of the
1st Commonwealth Division
.
[78]
A stalemate between the
United Nations Command
and Chinese forces emerged in 1952. From this time to the end of the war, New Zealand gunners primarily supported infantry patrols, as well as provided defensive and routine harassing fire. RNZN sailors also continued to patrol the western coast of Korea, with six New Zealand frigates seeing service in that region by the end of the conflict. The fighting was brought to an end with the signing of the
Korean Armistice Agreement
on 27 July 1953, although no final peace settlement was ever signed. As a result, New Zealand's military contribution to UN Command was reduced to one naval frigate attached to the Far East Fleet. In July 1957, Kayforce was finally withdrawn from Korea.
[79]
In total, 4,700 men served in Kayforce, with another 1,300 serving on RNZN frigates in the area during New Zealand's seven-year involvement on the Korean peninsula. During those seven years, 45 soldiers died, with 33 of them occurring during the Korean War.
[80]
Malaysia (1949?1966)
[
edit
]
From 1949 to 1966, New Zealand military forces were deployed to Malaysia in support of Commonwealth forces. During that time, approximately 4,000 New Zealand soldiers served there, of whom 20 died. However, only three were the result of enemy action.
[75]
Malayan Emergency (1949?1960)
[
edit
]
The Malayan Emergency arose from the
Malayan National Liberation Army
(MNLA) attempt to overthrow the colonial administration in China. Throughout the conflict, New Zealand supported Commonwealth efforts to defeat the communist insurgency.
[75]
From 1949 to 1955, New Zealand's involvement was limited to a select number of New Zealand Army officers and NCOs attached to other British units or the
Fiji Infantry Regiment
. By 1956, 40 New Zealanders served in the Fiji Infantry Regiment, including its commander, Lieutenant-Colonel
Ronald Tinker
. In addition to New Zealand Army troops,
HMNZS
Pukaki
also took part in early naval operations as a part of the British
Far East Fleet
.
[75]
In 1955, New Zealand increased its engagement in the conflict, after it decided to contribute to the Commonwealth
Far East Strategic Reserve
. In May 1955,
No. 14 Squadron RNZAF
began to carry out operational strike missions, while
No. 41 Squadron RNZAF
provided supply drops in support of anti-guerilla forces. A
New Zealand Special Air Service
(NZSAS) squadron was deployed near the
Perak
and
Kelantan
border in 1956 and
Negri Sembilan
in 1957, eliminating local MNLA groups in those areas. In 1958, the
New Zealand Regiment
relieved the NZSAS squadron serving in Malaya and took part in counter-insurgency operations in Perak. By late 1959, most insurgents had retreated to southern Thailand, and the Emergency was officially terminated on 31 July 1960. However, New Zealand infantry were periodically deployed to the border as part of counterinsurgency measures until 1964.
[75]
Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation (1964?1966)
[
edit
]
From 1964 to 1966, New Zealand aided Malaysia during the Borneo confrontation with Indonesia, after a request for military aid was made by the United Kingdom in December 1963. The New Zealand government had initially refused the request to station troops in Borneo. However, the New Zealand military was drawn into the conflict, after Indonesian forces
landed at Labis
in September 1964, and the
mouth of the Kesang River
in October 1964. In addition to these units, No. 14 Squadron RNZAF was deployed to Singapore as a part of the Commonwealth's air power deterrent during the Confrontation.
[81]
In February 1965, the New Zealand government approved the deployment of a Special Air Service detachment to Borneo, and two additional RNZN minesweepers to join
HMNZS
Taranaki
in patrolling the Malacca Strait. Following the
Indonesian coup d'etat
in October 1965, military activity by Indonesian insurgents in Borneo decreased dramatically. In August 1966, Malaysia and Indonesia signed a peace treaty to end hostilities. New Zealand units completed their withdrawal from Borneo in October 1966.
[81]
Vietnam War (1965?1972)
[
edit
]
The
Vietnam War
was a conflict between communist
North Vietnam
and the US-backed
South Vietnam
from 1960 to 1975. New Zealand forces supported American war efforts from 1965 to 1975. The conflict was the first war New Zealand took part in which the United Kingdom was not a direct participant in. In total, over 3,000 New Zealand soldiers took part in the conflict. There were 37 men who died while on active service, while an additional 187 were injured.
[82]
Despite its initial reluctance, the New Zealand government ultimately deployed combat units in May 1965, driven by a fear that non-participation would jeopardise the ANZUS alliance. After the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation ended, New Zealand faced renewed pressure from the US to expand its commitment, resulting in the dispatch of two additional infantry companies in 1967 and an NZSAS unit the next year. New Zealand's contributions peaked at 548 soldiers in 1968 and were grouped into the
1st Australian Task Force
. The task force primarily patrolled
Phuoc Tuy
, although also took part in large-scale actions like the
Battle of Long Tan
.
[82]
As American strategy shifted towards
Vietnamisation
, New Zealand sent army training teams to assist the
Army of the Republic of Vietnam
and withdrew its combat forces, completing the withdrawal of all its combat units from Vietnam by 1971. In 1972, the army training missions were also withdrawn from Vietnam.
[82]
After Vietnam
[
edit
]
Compulsory military training in New Zealand
came to an end in 1973, shortly after the country withdrew its military forces from Vietnam.
[83]
The end of the Vietnam War was a major turning point in New Zealand's strategic policy development, as its officials began to question New Zealand's commitment to its regional defence pacts, and to "forward defence" in Southeast Asia. These questions stemmed from growing disillusionment with American security policy and increased opposition to
nuclear weapons
in New Zealand.
[82]
[84]
New Zealand also ended its participation in SEATO after it dissolved in 1975.
[85]
In 1987, the
New Zealand nuclear-free zone
was established, causing the US to formally suspend its security obligations to New Zealand, effectively isolating it from the ANZUS arrangements.
[84]
However, New Zealand maintained its commitment to the
Five Power Defence Arrangements
, and maintained a
military presence in Singapore
until 1989.
[85]
Post-Cold War era
[
edit
]
Government policies during the latter decade of the Cold War and the 1990s heavily impacted the Royal New Zealand Air Force. Cuts to New Zealand's defence spending, the suspension of ANZUS obligations from the United States, and the prioritization of the NZDF's focus on peacekeeping operations resulted in the
disbandment of the RNZAF's combat wings
and the mothballing of the RNZAF's
Aermacchi MB-339
and
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
in 2001.
[86]
Gulf War and enforcement of sanctions (1990?1998)
[
edit
]
In November 1990, several months after the
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
, the UN Security Council
authorised the use of force
to force Iraq to withdraw. The
New Zealand Defence Force
(NZDF) contributed military personnel to the US-led
UN coalition
.
In September 1990, the tanker HMNZS
Endeavour
was deployed alongside the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) task force to assist with transportation.
[87]
On the 17 December 1990, New Zealand two C-130 Hercules transport aircraft of
No.40 Squadron
arrived at
King Khalid airport.
These aircraft delivered troops and freight such as ammunition, mail, and equipment. They conducted 157 sorties and were withdrawn on 4 April 1991.
[88]
On the 16 January 1991, 32 of the 1st New Zealand Army Medical Team were integrated with the 6th Naval Fleet in Bahrain. They were later joined on the 21 January with a 20-strong tri-service medical team.
[89]
From February 1991, Six Skyhawks and 60 personnel of
No.2 Squadron
assisted RAN anti-aircraft exercises.
[90]
There were 119 NZDF personnel deployed in the Gulf War, made up of maintenance and admin staff, pilots, air-movements, guards, and medics.
After the war, New Zealand contributed
United Nations Special Commission
to ensure Iraqi compliance with UN sanctions. In October 1995 and May 1996, HMNZS
Wellington
and
Canterbury
were deployed to the Persian Gulf to enforce sanctions.
[91]
In 1998, during operation
Desert Thunder
, two Orion aircraft and two NZSAS teams in addition to a naval team were deployed to Diego Garcia and Kuwait respectively.
[92]
War in Afghanistan (2001?2021)
[
edit
]
In November 2001, New Zealand announced it would provide military assistance to the US-led
Operation Enduring Freedom
. A Royal New Zealand Navy frigate and Royal New Zealand Air Force
P-3 Orion
were also deployed to the
Persian Gulf
in support of the operation. From 2003 to 2013, the NZDF deployed a 122-person
Provincial Reconstruction Team
(PRT) to
Bamyan Province
, to assist local authorities in maintaining security. The PRT also managed the
New Zealand Aid Programme
teams. Corporal
Willie Apiata
of the Special Air Service was awarded the first
Victoria Cross for New Zealand
while serving in Afghanistan in 2004.
[93]
Other logistical, instructional, liaison, planning and policy personnel of the NZDF were also deployed to serve in the Afghan headquarters for
International Security Assistance Force
, the
United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan
, and
Combined Forces Command-Afghanistan
.
[93]
NZDF support staff and New Zealand Special Air Service soldiers worked as a training and support element with the
Afghan National Police
Crisis Response Unit.
[93]
The NZDF confirmed that it planned to end its 20-year deployment in May 2021, with the withdrawal of six personnel from the Afghan National Army's Officer Academy and
NATO
's
Resolute Support Mission
Headquarters.
[94]
The RNZAF was briefly redeployed to Afghanistan near the
end of the conflict
in August 2021, to evacuate New Zealand and Australian nationals, as well as select Afghanistan nationals.
[95]
To support the evacuation, 80 NZDF personnel were deployed to the Middle East, while 19 were deployed to
Hamid Karzai International Airport
in Kabul.
[96]
Over 3,500 New Zealanders took part in military operations and training missions in Afghanistan.
[97]
Ten New Zealand soldiers died while in Afghanistan, eight of which occurred in combat.
[93]
On 4 August 2010, Lieutenant Tim O'Donnell of the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment was killed, marking the first combat death of a New Zealand soldier since July 2000 in East Timor.
[98]
[99]
War against the Islamic State (2014?present)
[
edit
]
On 8 August 2014, US-led coalition military operations against ISIS commenced in Iraq following an urgent request for international assistance from the Iraqi Government.
[100]
This operation was formalised in September 2014 under the US designator
Operation Inherent Resolve
. New Zealand noted that the reason they joined the operation was due to ISIS's unprecedented success, brutal tactics and harm to civilians, and ability to recruit, fund and carry out sophisticated combat, terrorist and information operations.
[101]
Peacekeeping and observer missions
[
edit
]
United Nations missions
[
edit
]
New Zealand has provided military personnel and money to help fund United Nations peacekeeping activities. The first UN missions that New Zealand contributed personnel to were the
United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
following the
1948 Arab?Israeli War
, and the
United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan
in 1952.
[60]
[102]
Other UN missions NZDF personnel took part in included the
United Nations Iran?Iraq Military Observer Group
following the
Iran-Iraq War
in 1988.
[103]
During the
Somali Civil War
, the NZDF formed the
New Zealand Supply Contingent Somalia
to provide personnel to the US-led UN
Unified Task Force
and its successor,
United Nations Operation in Somalia II
.
[104]
[105]
[106]
[107]
No. 42 Squadron RNZAF
also provided personnel to support the missions in Somalia.
[108]
Somalia was the first deployment of New Zealand combat troops to a war zone since the Vietnam War.
In addition to military personnel,
New Zealand Police
personnel have also served in peacekeeping missions to
Cyprus
(1964?1967),
Namibia
(1989?1990), East Timor (
1999?2001
and
2006?2012
), and
Afghanistan
(2005).
[102]
Former Yugoslavia (1992?2007)
[
edit
]
New Zealand's commitment to the Balkan states commenced in 1992 with the deployment of five soldiers as UN Military Observers serving with the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR). In March 1994 to January 1996 New Zealand committed the first of Five Company Groups of mechanised infantry serving as part of British battalions. These were termed OP RADIAN. When this commitment was withdrawn New Zealand continued to commit 12 to 15 artillery and armoured soldiers to the British contingent, as well as three Staff Officers to the NATO Stabilisation Force (SFOR). As the mission evolved, the New Zealand contingent changed to a Liaison and Observation Team in the Bosnian town of Preijedor. The contribution was maintained through the handover of the NATO SFOR mission to the European Union
EUFOR Althea
on 2 December 2004. The LOT was withdrawn on 5 April 2007 but the three staff officers, the last in a continuous 15-year contribution to the peacekeeping effort in the former Yugoslavia, departed on 29 June 2007. One member was seriously wounded during this period.
[109]
East Timor (1999?2003, 2006)
[
edit
]
Following East Timor's vote for independence in 1999, the Australian-led
INTERFET
(International Force East Timor) was deployed with the permission of the Indonesian Government in response to a complete breakdown in order. INTERFET was composed of contributions from 17 nations, about 9,900 in total. New Zealand's contribution in East Timor included SAS special forces, infantry battalion and helicopters, backed by RNZN warships and RNZAF transport.
INTERFET was replaced by a United Nations mission (
UNTAET
? United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor) which sought to move East Timor toward elections and self-government and the troops came under the command of
UNTAET
in late 2000, which was in turn replaced by
UNMISET
in 2002. At its peak, the New Zealand Defence Force had 1,100 personnel in East Timor ? New Zealand's largest overseas military deployment since the Korean War. Overall New Zealand's contribution saw just short of 4,000 New Zealanders serve in East Timor. In addition to their operations against militia, the New Zealand troops were also involved in construction of roads and schools, water supplies, training the nascent
Timor Leste Defence Force
(F-FDTL) and other infrastructural assistance. English lessons and medical aid were also provided. New Zealand Defence Force personnel were withdrawn in November 2002 leaving only a small training team for the F-FDTL. However, in May 2006 widespread fighting broke out in the Timorese capital of
Dili
as a result of a mass resignation of 591 soldiers and increasing tension between the F-FDTL and the East Timorese police (PNTL). A contingent of 120 troops were dispatched and provided security in Dili alongside soldiers and police from Australia, Malaysia and Portugal. Four New Zealand peacekeepers have been killed on operations in East Timor.
Other peacekeeping operations
[
edit
]
Rhodesia (1979?1980)
[
edit
]
In 1979, New Zealand contributed a force of seventy-five officers and men to the Commonwealth Monitoring Force which was established to oversee the implementation of the agreement which had ended the
Rhodesian War
. Troops supervised the concentration of the
guerrilla
forces into sixteen Assembly Places during the period in which the
cease fire
was implemented and national elections held. Following the election the Commonwealth Monitoring Force began withdrawing from the newly independent and renamed Zimbabwe on 2 March 1980 with the final members of the force leaving on 16 March.
Multi-National Force and Observers (1982?present)
[
edit
]
On
ANZAC Day
1982, a small group of twenty six New Zealand soldiers arrived in the
Sinai
as New Zealand's commitment to the
Multinational Force and Observers
(MFO). This was to be the beginning of an ongoing commitment of New Zealand
Peacekeepers
to the Sinai region. The task of the MFO was initially to supervise the withdrawal of Israeli military units from Egyptian territory. A rotary wing of the
Royal New Zealand Air Force
also served until 1986. New Zealand increased its commitment to this Mission, which is now tri-service in nature, with a group of about two
platoons
of specialist servicemen and women serving a six-month
Tour of Duty
with the MFO.
Cambodia (1991?2005)
[
edit
]
In 1992, New Zealand contributed 30 non-combatant engineers to the Mine Clearing Training Unit (MCTU) and 40 communications specialists. In late 1992, the RNZN tasked a 30 strong team with coastal patrols and aided Vietnamese refugees.
[110]
Solomon Islands (2003?2013)
[
edit
]
New Zealand participated in the
Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands
(RAMSI), which aimed to restore peace following the Solomon Islands civil war. RAMSI acted as an interim police force and has been successful in improving the country's overall security conditions, including brokering the surrender of a notorious warlord,
Harold Keke
. New Zealand contributed four helicopters and about 230 personnel consisting of infantry, engineers, medical and support staff. RAMSI was scaled down in July 2004, as stability had gradually been restored to the country. It was now primarily a police force. In 2007, New Zealand forces provided support relief in the aftermath of the 2 April 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake. The Mission ended in August 2013.
[111]
Iraq (2003?present)
[
edit
]
The New Zealand government opposed and
officially condemned
the
2003 Invasion of Iraq
. Despite this, the frigate
HMNZS Te Kaha (F77)
and an RNZAF
P-3 Orion
maritime surveillance aircraft were deployed to the Gulf, under US command.
[112]
[113]
Following the invasion, later in 2003 New Zealand supplied a number of engineers and armed troops to the coalition effort. Task Group Rake, a
Royal New Zealand Engineers
group, joined
Multi-National Division South East
for one year under
British Army
command.
[114]
Diplomatic cables leaked in 2010
suggested New Zealand had only done so in order to keep valuable Oil for Food contracts.
[115]
[116]
In accordance with
United Nations Security Council
Resolution 1483
New Zealand also contributed a small engineering and support force to assist in
post-war reconstruction
and provision of humanitarian aid. The engineers returned home in October 2004, but liaison and staff officers remained in Iraq working with coalition forces. As of 2012, one military observer from New Zealand was serving as part of the
United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq
.
[117]
On the 10th anniversary of the invasion, New Zealand journalist Jon Stephenson ? who was in Baghdad when the war began ? said New Zealand's contribution to the recovery effort had been "grossly overstated".
[118]
Tonga (2006)
[
edit
]
On 18 November 2006, a contingent of seventy-two New Zealand Defence Force personnel and additional
New Zealand Police
officers was deployed to Tonga at the Tongan Government's request to assist in the restoration of calm after an outbreak of violence in the nation's capital,
Nuku?alofa
. They were joined by Australian soldiers and
Australian Federal Police
officers. Their main objective is to assist the Tongan forces in protecting Tonga's international airport in
Nuku?alofa
. The personnel returned on 2 December.
[119]
Antarctica
[
edit
]
New Zealand's armed forces have been involved in
Antarctic
research and exploration since the 1950s. The Air Force operated two
Auster T7
and a
Beaver
in Antarctica in the late 1950s, the Austers somewhat unsuccessfully. The navy has escorted supply ships and conducted its own supply missions, provided weather monitoring and support for U.S. activities in the 'frozen continent', conducted scientific research, and helped build
Scott Base
. In 1964,
40 Squadron
,
Royal New Zealand Air Force
, was re-equipped with the C-130H Hercules and, the following year, commenced regular flights to and from the Antarctic. The army, and later the other two services, have provided cargo handlers.
No. 5 Squadron
has operated in the airspace over and near Scott Base to provide search and rescue standby and to drop mail and medical supplies to the people wintering over.
See also
[
edit
]
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"
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the original
on 13 April 2013.
- ^
"Tonga: 2003?2004, 2006"
.
New Zealand Army
. 18 March 2015
. Retrieved
13 August
2016
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Crawford, John (1999).
"New Zealand and the Boer War"
.
New Zealand Defence Quarterly
.
- Hager, Nicky
(2011).
Other People's Wars: New Zealand in Afghanistan, Iraq and the War on Terror
. Nelson, NZ: Craig Potton Publishing.
ISBN
978-1-877517-69-3
.
- Johnston, Martin (15 December 2004).
"Government apology for Vietnam War veterans"
.
The New Zealand Herald
. Archived from
the original
on 29 September 2007.
- Kaye, C.M.S. Mission Extraordinary Zimbabwe ? Rhodesia, British Army Review, 1980.
- Larsen, Stanley Robert; James Lawton Collins Jr (1985).
Allied Participation in Vietnam
. Washington D.C.: Department of the Army.
LCCN
74-28217
.
- Lock, Peter. & Cooke Peter, Fighting Vehicles and Weapons of Rhodesia, P&P Publishing, Wellington, 1995.
- Loveridge, Steven (2016). "Another Great War? New Zealand interpretations of the First World War towards and into the Second World War".
First World War Studies
. pp. 303?325.
- Lovett, John. Contact, Galaxie Press, Salisbury, 1979.
- M?hina-Tuai, Kolokesa (2012). "FIA (Forgotten in Action) Pacific Islanders in the New Zealand Armed Forces". In Mallon, Sean; M?hina-Tuai, Kolokesa; Salesa, Damon (eds.).
Tangata o le moana: New Zealand and the people o the Pacific
. Te Papa Press. pp. 139?160.
ISBN
9781877385728
.
- McLintock, A. H.
(ed.).
"WARS ? FIRST WORLD WAR, 1914?18"
.
An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand
.
- Moorcroft, Paul. Contact II, Sygma Press, Johannesburg, 1981.
- O'Malley, Vincent (2019).
The New Zealand Wars Ng? Pakanga O Aotearoa
. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books.
ISBN
9781988545998
.
- Subritzky, Michael (1995).
The Vietnam Scrapbook The Second ANZAC Adventure
. Blenheim: Three Feathers.
ISBN
0-9583484-0-5
.
- Wright, Matthew (2005).
Western Front : the New Zealand Division in the First World War 1916?18
. Auckland: Reed.
ISBN
0-7900-0990-0
.
- Inquiry into the exposure of New Zealand defence personnel to Agent Orange and other defoliant chemicals during the Vietnam War and any health effects of that exposure, and transcripts of evidence
(PDF)
(Report). 2004. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 1 February 2005.
- New Zealand Defence Force: Deployment to East Timor
(PDF)
(Report). Controller and Auditor-General. November 2001. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 8 November 2006.
- "War and Society"
.
New Zealand's history online
.
- "A History of the New Zealand Army, 1840 to 1990s"
. Archived from
the original
on 25 April 2006.
- "Australian & New Zealand Military History from 1788"
.
- "New Zealand in the First World War"
.
New Zealand and the Commonwealth War Graves Commission
. Archived from
the original
on 18 October 2008.
- "NZ Forces"
.
The AIF & NZEF in the Great War
. Archived from
the original
on 10 February 2006.
- "East Timor"
.
New Zealand Army Overseas
. Archived from
the original
on 25 May 2006.
- "East Timor"
.
New Zealand Defence Force: Deployments
. Archived from
the original
on 4 May 2012.
- "East Timor"
.
Riots, Rebellion, Gunboats and Peace Keepers
. Archived from
the original
on 10 May 2006.
- "ROYAL NEW ZEALAND FORCES"
.
The Korean War
. Archived from
the original
on 20 March 2006.
- "S Korea ruling on Agent Orange"
.
BBC News
. 26 January 2006.
- "Timor Leste"
.
New Zealand Defence Force: Deployments
.
[
dead link
]
- "NZ Commitment To Timor To Become Battalion"
. Scoop. 30 September 1999.
- "Solomon Islands"
.
New Zealand Army Overseas
. Archived from
the original
on 14 April 2005.
- "Solomon Islands"
.
New Zealand Police: Overseas Assistance
.
[
dead link
]
- "NZ contribution to Solomon Islands to continue"
(Press release). New Zealand Defence Force. 6 July 2004. Archived from
the original
on 14 December 2004.
- "Ongoing assistance to Solomon Islands"
(Press release). New Zealand Defence Force. 5 August 2004. Archived from
the original
on 26 December 2004.
- "Afghanistan"
.
New Zealand Defence Force: Deployments
. Archived from
the original
on 4 May 2012.
- "Goff positive about Afghanistan contribution"
(Press release). New Zealand Defence Force. 1 February 2006. Archived from
the original
on 9 October 2006.
- "Iraq ? UNMOVIC"
.
New Zealand Army Overseas
.
- "More troops as Dili violence escalates"
. Television New Zealand. RNZ. 27 May 2006. Archived from
the original
on 27 August 2006.
External links
[
edit
]
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Associated states
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Dependencies
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