The
history of Western Sahara
can be traced back to the times of
Carthaginian
explorer
Hanno the Navigator
in the 5th century BC. Though few historical records are left from that period,
Western Sahara
's modern history has its roots linked to some nomadic groups (living under Berber tribal rule and in contact with the Roman Empire) such as the
Sanhaja
group, and the introduction of
Islam
and the
Arabic language
at the end of the 8th century AD.
Western Sahara has never been a nation in the modern sense of the word. It was home to Phoenician colonies, but those disappeared with virtually no trace.
Islam
arrived there in the 8th century, but the region, beset with desertification, remained little developed.
From the 11th to the 19th centuries, Western Sahara was one of the links between the
sub-Saharan
and
North African
regions. During the 11th century, the
Sanhaja
tribal confederation allied with the
Lamtuna
tribe to found the
Almoravid dynasty
. The conquests of the Almoravids extended over present-day
Morocco
,
Western Algeria
, and the
Iberian Peninsula
to the north and
Mauritania
and
Mali
to the south, reaching the
Ghana Empire
. By the 16th century, the Arab
Saadi dynasty
conquered the
Songhai Empire
based on the
Niger River
. Some
Trans-Saharan trade
routes also traversed Western Sahara.
In 1884,
Spain
claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cape Blanc, and the area was later extended. In 1958, Spain combined separate districts together to form the province of
Spanish Sahara
.
A
1975 advisory opinion
by the
International Court of Justice
on the status of the Western Sahara held that while some of the region's tribes had historical ties to Morocco, they were insufficient to establish "any tie of territorial sovereignty" between the Western Sahara and the Kingdom of
Morocco
. In November of that year, the
Green March
into Western Sahara began when 300,000 unarmed Moroccans, accompanied by the Moroccan Army armed with heavy weapons,
[
verification needed
]
converged on the southern city of Tarfaya and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross into Western Sahara. As a result of pressure from France, the US, and the UK, Spain abandoned Western Sahara on November 14, 1975, going so far as to even exhume Spanish corpses from cemeteries. Morocco later virtually annexed the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara in 1976, and the rest of the territory in 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal.
On February 27, 1976, the
Polisario Front
formally proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and set up a government in exile, initiating a guerrilla war between the Polisario and Morocco, which continued until a 1991 cease-fire. As part of the 1991 peace accords, a referendum was to be held among indigenous people, giving them the option between independence or inclusion to Morocco. To date the referendum has not been held because of questions over who is eligible to vote.
Ancient and classical antiquity
[
edit
]
Phoenician
/
Carthaginian
colonies established or reinforced by
Hanno the Navigator
in the 5th century BC have vanished with virtually no trace.
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
The
desertification
of the
Sahara
during the "transitional arid phase" ca. 300 BC - 300 AD"
[1]
made contact with some parts with the outside world very difficult before the introduction of the
camel
into these areas, from the third century of the Christian era on.
[2]
Contacts with Roman Empire
[
edit
]
Plinius
wrote that the coastal area north of the
river Senegal
and south of the
Atlas Mountains
was populated, during
Augustus
times, by the
Pharusii
and
Perorsi
,
[3]
In the year 41 AD Suetonius Paullinus, afterwards Consul, was the first of the Romans who led an army across Mount Atlas. At the end of a ten days' march he reached the summit,?which even in summer was covered with snow,?and from thence, after passing a desert of black sand and burnt rocks, he arrived at a river called Gerj...he then penetrated into the country of the Canarii and Perorsi, the former of whom inhabited a woody region abounding in elephants and serpents, and the latter were Ethiopians, not far distant from the Pharusii and the river Daras (modern river Senegal)
.
[4]
What is now Western Sahara was a dry
savanna
area during
classical antiquity
, where independent tribes like the Pharusii and the Perorsi led a
semi-nomadic
life facing a growing
desertification
.
Romans
made
explorations
toward this area and probably reached, with
Suetonius Paulinus
, the area of
Adrar
. There is evidence (e.g., coins,
fibulas
) of Roman commerce in
Akjoujt
and Tamkartkart near
Tichit
.
[5]
The western Sahara population (in those first centuries of the Roman Empire) consisted of nomads (mainly of the
Sanhaja
tribal
confederation) in the plains and sedentary populations in river valleys, in oases, and in towns like Awdaghust Tichitt, Oualata, Taghaza, Timbuktu,
Awlil
, Azuki, and Tamdult.
Some
Berber tribes
moved to
Mauritania
in the third and fourth century, and after the 13th century some Arabs entered the region as conquerors
[6]
.
[
citation needed
]
Islamic era
[
edit
]
Islam
arrived in the 8th century AD between the
Berber
population who inhabited the western part of the Sahara.
[
citation needed
]
[7]
The Islamic faith quickly expanded, brought by
Arab
immigrants, who initially only blended superficially with the population, mostly confining themselves to the cities of present-day
Morocco
and Spain.
The Berbers increasingly used the traditional trade routes of the
Sahara
.
Caravans
transported
salt
,
gold
and
slaves
between North Africa and
West Africa
, and the control of trade routes became a major ingredient in the constant power struggle between various tribes. On more than one occasion, the Berber tribes of the Western Sahara would unite behind religious leaders to sweep the ruling leaders from power, sometimes founding dynasties of their own. This was the case with the
Almoravids
of
Morocco
and
Al-Andalus
, and was also the case with the jihad of Nasir al-Din in the 17th century and the later
Qadiriyyah
movement of the
Kunta
in the 18th century.
[8]
Zawiyas
[
edit
]
An important role was played by the
zawiyas
. These zawiya tribes became the tribes of the teachers, specialists of religion, law and education.
[9]
Arabization of the mujahideen (13th and 14th century)
[
edit
]
In the 13th and 14th century, these tribes migrated westwards along the Sahara's northern border to settle in the
Fezzan
(
Libya
),
Ifriqiya
(
Tunisia
),
Tlemcen
(
Algeria
),
Jebel Saghro
(
Morocco
), and
Saguia el-Hamra
(
Western Sahara
).
[10]
Ouadane
, Idjil (near
Atar
),
Azougui
,
Araouane
,
Taoudenni
, and later
Tindouf
were important stopping-places.
[11]
[12]
At the same time, the number of slaves kept in
Western Sahara
itself increased drastically.
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
The Maqil tribes, who entered the domains of the
Sanhaja
Berber tribe, sometimes intermarried with the Berber population; the Arabo-Berber people of the region are now known as
Saharawi
. An
exonym
sometimes used to describe the
Banu Hassan
tribes of present-day of the region was
Moors
. The
Arabic
dialect,
Hassaniya
, became the dominant mother-tongue of the Western Sahara and
Mauritania
. Berber vocabulary and cultural traits remain common, despite the fact that many Saharawi people today claim Arab ancestry.
[18]
Colonial era (1884?1975)
[
edit
]
Western Sahara
came under Spanish rule, despite attempts by the Moroccan sultan Hassan I to repel the European incursions on the territory in 1886. The oases of
Tuat
in the south-east went to the immense territory of the French
Sahara
. In 1898, in the aftermath of the
Spanish?American War
, Spain attempted to sell Spanish Sahara to
Austria-Hungary
; Spain wished to recoup its losses from the conflict and several Austrian ministers wished to obtain an overseas colony to justify naval expansion. However, as Austria-Hungary operated as a
dual monarchy
with
Austria
and
Hungary
having joint control over financial and foreign policy matters, the Hungarian
House of Magnates
vetoed the purchase and the colony was retained by Spain.
In 1912,
Morocco
itself became a protectorate of Spain and France.
[19]
Sahrawi tribes
[
edit
]
The modern
ethnic group
is thus an
Arabized
Berber people inhabiting the westernmost
Sahara desert
, in the area of modern
Mauritania
,
Morocco
,
Algeria
and most notably the
Western Sahara
, with some
tribes
traditionally migrating into northern
Mali
and
Niger
. As with most
Saharan
peoples, the tribes reflect a highly mixed heritage, combining
Arab
, Berber, and other influences, including
black African
ethnic and cultural characteristics.
In pre-colonial times, the tribal areas of the
Sahara desert
was generally considered
bled es-Siba
or "the land of dissidence" by the authorities of the established
Islamic
states of North Africa, such as the
Sultan of Morocco
and the
Deys
of
Algeria
. The Islamic governments of the pre-colonial sub-Saharan empires of
Mali
and
Songhai
appear to have had a similar relationship with these territories, which were at once the home of undisciplined raiding tribes and the main trade route for the Saharan
caravan trade
. Central governments had little control over the region, although some Hassaniya tribes would occasionally extended "
beya
" or allegiance to prestigious neighbouring rulers, to gain their political backing or, in some cases, as a religious ceremony.
Best reference on Sahrawi population ethnography in the Spanish colonial era is the work of Spanish anthropologist
Julio Caro Baroja
, who in 1952?53 spent several months among native tribes all along the then
Spanish Sahara
.
[20]
Spanish Sahara
[
edit
]
In 1884, Spain claimed a
protectorate
over the coast from
Cape Bojador
to
Cap Blanc
. Later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain joined the previously separate districts of
Saguia el-Hamra
(in the north) and
Rio de Oro
(in the south) to form the province of
Spanish Sahara
.
Raids and rebellions by the
Sahrawi
population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the territory for a long time.
Ma al-Aynayn
started an uprising against the French in the 1910s, at a time when France had expanded its influence and control in North-West Africa. French forces finally beat him when he tried to conquer
Marrakesh
, but his sons and followers figured prominently in several rebellions which followed. Not until the second destruction of
Smara
in 1934, by joint Spanish and French forces, did the territory finally become subdued.
Another uprising in 1956?1958
, initiated by the
Moroccan Army of Liberation
, led to heavy fighting, but eventually the Spanish forces regained control - again with French aid. However, unrest simmered, and in 1967 the
Harakat Tahrir
arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. After the events of the
Zemla Intifada
in 1970, when Spanish police destroyed the organization and "
disappeared
" its founder,
Muhammad Bassiri
, anti-Spanish feeling or Sahrawi nationalism again took a militant turn.
Western Sahara conflict
[
edit
]
From 1973 the colonizers gradually lost control over the countryside to the armed
guerrillas
of the
Polisario Front
, a
nationalist
organization. Successive Spanish attempts to form loyal Sahrawi political institutions (such as the
Djema'a
-many members of the Yemaa are today in Polisario Movement- and the
PUNS party
) to support its rule, and draw activists away from the radical nationalists, failed. As the health of the Spanish leader
Francisco Franco
deteriorated, the
Madrid
government slipped into disarray, and sought a way out of the Sahara conflict. The fall in 1974 of the
Portuguese Estado Novo-government
after unpopular
wars in its own African provinces
seems to have hastened the decision to pull out.
Armed conflict (1975?1991)
[
edit
]
In late 1975, Spain held meetings with Polisario leader
El-Ouali
, to negotiate the terms for a handover of power. But at the same time,
Morocco
and
Mauritania
began to put pressure on the Franco government: both countries argued that
Spanish Sahara
formed a historical part of their own territories. The United Nations became involved after Morocco asked for an opinion on the legality of its demands from the
International Court of Justice
(ICJ), and the UN also sent a
visiting mission
to examine the wishes of the population. The visiting mission returned its report on October 15, announcing "an overwhelming consensus" in favor of
independence
[21]
(as opposed to integration with Morocco or with Mauritania, or continued rule by Spain). The mission, headed by
Simeon Ake
, also declared that the Polisario Front seemed the main Sahrawi organization of the territory - the only rival arrangements to what the mission described as Polisario's "mass demonstrations" came from the
PUNS
, which by this time also advocated independence. Polisario then made further diplomatic gains by ensuring the backing of the main Sahrawi tribes and of a number of formerly pro-Spanish
Djema'a
elders at the
Ain Ben Tili
conference of October 12.
On October 16, the ICJ delivered
its verdict
. To the dismay of both the
Rabat
and
Nouakchott
governments, the court found with a clear majority, that the historical ties of these countries to Spanish Sahara did
not
grant them the right to the territory. Furthermore, the Court declared that the concept of
terra nullius
(un-owned land) did not apply to the territory. The Court declared that the Sahrawi population, as the true owners of the land, held a right of
self-determination
. In other words, any proposed solution to the situation (independence, integration etc.), had to receive the explicit acceptance of the population to gain any legal standing. Neither Morocco nor Mauritania accepted this, and on October 31, 1975, Morocco sent its
army
into Western Sahara to attack Polisario positions. The public
diplomacy
between Spain and Morocco continued, however, with Morocco demanding bilateral negotiations over the fate of the territory.
On November 6, 1975 Morocco launched the
Green March
into Western Sahara. About 350,000 unarmed
Moroccans
accompanied by the Moroccan Army armed with heavy weapons converged on the city of
Tarfaya
in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King
Hassan II of Morocco
to cross into
Western Sahara
. As a result of international pressure, Spain acceded to Moroccan demands, and entered bilateral negotiations. This led to the
Madrid Agreement
and the
Western Sahara partition agreement
, treaties that divided the administration of the territory between Morocco and Mauritania, but did not impact the sovereignty debate. Spain, Morocco and Mauritania did not consult the Sahrawi population, and the Polisario violently opposed the treaties. The developments chance in the region until the 1990s were strongly influenced by the power struggle of the
Cold war
.
Algeria
,
Libya
and
Mali
were allied to the
Eastern bloc
.
Morocco
was the only African country in the region that was allied to the
West
.
Algeria gave help to the Movimiento de Liberacion del Sahara,
[22]
that in the late 1960s and early 1970s formed a section of new
split youngs
. The majority of the Sahrawi people supported its patriotic actions and identified with this movement, which later was called Polisario,
[23]
and gradually had more misunderstandings with the Autonomous and
Central Government
of the Metropoli for the signs of a
vacilante
, or feeble foreign policy, made up by generals that had the "ultima palabra" or "last word", feeling a possible betrayal of the
Motherland
.
On November 14, 1975, Spain, Morocco and Mauritania signed the Madrid Accords, hence setting up a timetable for the retrieval of Spanish forces and ending Spanish occupation of Western Sahara. These accords were signed by the three parties in accordance with all international standards. In these accords, Morocco was set to annex back 2/3 of the northern part of Western Sahara, whereas the lower third would be given to Mauritania.
Polisario established their own Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, and combined guerrilla warfare with their conventional military forces, the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army (SPLA).
On February 26, 1976 Spain's formal mandate over the territory ended when it handed administrative power on to Morocco in a ceremony in Laayoune. The day after, the Polisario proclaimed in
Bir Lehlou
the
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
(SADR) as a
government in exile
. Mauritania in its turn renamed the southern parts of
Rio de Oro
as
Tiris al-Gharbiyya
, but proved unable to maintain control over the territory. Polisario made the weak Mauritanian army its main target, and after a bold raid on the Mauritanian capital Nouakchott (where a gunshot killed
El-Ouali
, the first president of the SADR), Mauritania succumbed to internal unrest. The presence of a large number of Sahrawi nationalists among the country's dominant
Moorish
population made the Mauritanian government's position yet more fragile, and thousands of Mauritanian Sahrawis defected to Polisario. In 1978 the army seized control of the Mauritanian government and Polisario declared a cease-fire, on the assumption that Mauritania would withdraw unconditionally. This eventually occurred in 1979, as Mauritania's new rulers agreed to surrender all claims and to recognize the SADR. Following Mauritania's withdrawal, however, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory, and the war continued.
Through the 1980s, the war stalemated through the construction of a desert sand berm, the
Moroccan Wall
. Sporadic fighting continued, and Morocco faced heavy burdens due to the economic costs of its massive troop deployments along the Wall. To some extent aid sent by
Saudi Arabia
, France and by the USA relieved the situation in Morocco, but matters gradually became unsustainable for all parties involved.
Cease-fire
[
edit
]
In 1991, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on a
UN
-backed
cease-fire
in the
Settlement Plan
. This plan, its further detail fleshed out in the 1997
Houston Agreement
, hinged upon Morocco's agreement to a
referendum
on
independence
or unification with Morocco voted on by the Sahrawi population. The plan intended this referendum to constitute their exercise of self-determination, thereby completing the territory's yet unfinished process of
decolonization
. The UN dispatched a
peace-keeping mission
, the
MINURSO
, to oversee the cease-fire and make arrangements for the vote. Initially scheduled for 1992, the referendum has not taken place, due to the conflict over who has the right to vote.
Two subsequent attempts to resolve the problem by means of a negotiated political settlement by James Baker, acting as Personal
Envoy
of the
UN Secretary General
, the first in 2000 and the second in 2003, failed to gain acceptance, the first being rejected by the Polisario and second by Morocco. Both attempts, the first referred to as "The Framework Agreement" and the second commonly referred to as "The Peace Plan", contained the proposal of autonomy for the region under Moroccan sovereignty as core elements of the plans. Failure to gain acceptance by the parties to either proposal was a result of what each of the parties viewed as fundamental flaws in the respective proposals.
The Framework Agreement would have required the parties to agree on the specific terms of a political settlement based on the Autonomy/Sovereignty formula through direct negotiations. Baker presented the Peace Plan as a non-negotiable package that would have obliged each of the parties to accept its terms without further amendment. Both proposals contained elements that would have required popular endorsement of the solution through a referendum of the concerned populations. The UN Security Council declined to formally endorse either of the two proposals, which led eventually to Baker's resignation as Personal Envoy.
[24]
The prolonged cease-fire has held without major disturbances, but Polisario has repeatedly threatened to resume fighting if no breakthrough occurs. Morocco's withdrawal from both the terms of the original
Settlement Plan
and the
Baker Plan
negotiations in 2003 left the peace-keeping mission without a political agenda, which further increased the risks of renewed war.
Meanwhile, the gradual liberalization of political life in Morocco during the 1990s belatedly reached Western Sahara around 2000. This spurred political protest, as former "
disappeared
" and other
human rights
-campaigners began holding illegal
demonstrations
against Moroccan rule. The subsequent crackdowns and arrests drew media attention to the Moroccan occupation, and Sahrawi nationalists seized on the opportunity: in May 2005, a wave of demonstrations subsequently dubbed by the
Independence Intifada
by Polisario supporters, broke out. These demonstrations, which continued into the following year, were the most intense in years, and engendered a new wave of interest in the conflict, as well as new fears of instability. Polisario demanded international intervention but declared that it could not stand idly by if the "escalation of repression" continued.
In 2007, Morocco requested U.N. action against a congress to be held by the Polisario Front in Tifariti from December 14 to December 16. Morocco claimed Tifariti was part of a buffer zone and holding the congress there violated a cease-fire between the two parties. Additionally, the Polisario Front had been reported as planning a vote on a proposal for making preparations for war; if passed, it would have been the first time in 16 years preparations for war had been part of the Polisario's strategy.
[25]
In October 2010, Gadaym Izik camp was set up near
Laayoune
as a protest by displaced
Sahrawi people
about their living conditions. It was home to more than 12,000 people. In November 2010, Moroccan security forces entered Gadaym Izik camp in the early hours of the morning, using helicopters and
water cannons
to force people to leave. The Polisario Front said Moroccan security forces had killed a 26-year-old protester at the camp, a claim denied by Morocco. Protesters in Laayoune threw stones at police and set fire to tires and vehicles. Several buildings, including a TV station, were also set afire. Moroccan officials said five security personnel had been killed in the unrest.
[26]
In 2020, the Polisario Front brought legal action against
New Zealand
's superannuation fund for accepting "blood phosphate" from the occupied region.
[27]
In November
a brief conflict
broke out near the Southern village of
Guerguerat
, with Morocco claiming to want to end a blockade of a road to Mauritania, and to pave that road.
[28]
See also
[
edit
]
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Aguirre, Diego; Ramon, Jose (1987).
Historia del Sahara Espanol. La verdad de una traicion
. Madrid: Kaydeda.
- "Chronology of Spanish Sahara"
.
Balagan.org.uk
. Archived from
the original
on 2006-10-07.
- Garcia, Victor Valera (2011).
The Campaigns for the Pacification of the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco: A Forgotten Example of Successful Counterinsurgency
.
[
permanent dead link
]
Abstract: This monograph provides vision of the campaigns to pacify the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco from 1909 to 1926 by which the Spanish armed forces not only achieved the pacification of the Protectorate in 1926, but administered it peacefully until 1956 in a remarkable example of Stability Operations. The key to achieve this success was the ability of the Spanish Army to learn how to adapt to the Moroccan scenario culturally, tactically and technically. Foremost, along the campaigns of 1921?1926 the Army devised the methods and instruments that would allow for the fruitful administration of the Protectorate until 1956. Keys for the improvement of fighting abilities were the full integration of natives in Spanish units, the creation of professional forces adapted to the characteristics of the theater, and the balance of these professional units with regular armed forces technically and tactically improved. On the governance side, the Spanish Protectorate disturbed as little as possible the traditional Moroccan system or Makhzen and limited to closely supervise it through the implementation of a network of Oficinas de Intervencion or supervision Offices led by an Officer who held all civilian and military responsibilities.
- Hodges, Tony (1983).
Western Sahara: Roots of a Desert War
. L. Hill.
ISBN
0-88208-152-7
.
- Janos, Beseny? (20 August 2009).
Western Sahara
. Beseny? Janos.
ISBN
978-963-88332-0-4
.
- Jensen, Erik (2005).
Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate
. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
ISBN
1-58826-305-3
.
- King, Dean (2004).
Skeletons on the Zahara: A True Story of Survival
. Little, Brown.
ISBN
978-0-316-83514-5
.
- Mercer, J. (1976).
Spanish Sahara
. London: George, Allen & Unwin.
- Mundy, Jacob (September 2006). "Neutrality or complicity? The United States and the 1975 takeover of the Spanish Sahara".
Journal of North African Studies
(3): 275?306.
doi
:
10.1080/13629380600803001
.
S2CID
145455013
.
- Shelley, Toby (6 November 2004).
Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?
. Zed Books.
ISBN
1-84277-341-0
.
- Sipe, Lynn F. (1984).
Western Sahara: A Comprehensive Bibliography
. New York: Garland Publ.
ISBN
978-0-8240-9125-5
.
- "Thematic bibliography: general: The question of Western Sahara"
.
Arso.org
.
References
[
edit
]
[29]
- ^
Brooks, George E. (1998). Connah, Graham (ed.). "Climate and History in West Africa".
Transformations in Africa. Essays on Africa's Later Past
. London & Washington: Leicester University Press. pp. 139?159.
- ^
Devisse, J.; Vansina, J. (1988). "Chapter 28: Africa from the seventh to the eleventh century: five formative centuries".
UNESCO
General History of Africa
III
. p. 758.
- ^
Map with indication of the Pharusii and Perorsi
. 1832.
- ^
"Pliny the Elder".
The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London
.
1?10
. Great Britain: Royal Geographical Society: 7.
- ^
Sahara in classical antiquity: Map of Roman presence and archeological findings in the Western Sahara region
. Univ of California Press. 1981. p. 514.
ISBN
978-0-435-94805-4
.
- ^
"North Africa - From the Arab conquest to 1830 | Britannica"
.
www.britannica.com
. Retrieved
2022-06-20
.
- ^
Wiafe-Amoako, Francis (2021).
The World Today Series: Africa
. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 3.
ISBN
978-1-4758-5649-1
.
- ^
Philip Curtin (ed.), African History, 1978, p. 211-212
- ^
Maurische Chronik (ed. W.D. Seiwert), Ch.6 Leute des Buches und Leute des Schwerts, Berlin, 1988
- ^
H. Mones. "Chapter 9: The conquest of North Africa and Berber Resistance".
UNESCO - General History of Africa III
. pp. 224?246.
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"Map"
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"Map"
.
Les.Traites.Negrieres.Free.Fr
.
[
permanent dead link
]
- ^
Webb, J.L.A. (1993). "The horse and slave trade between the western Sahara and Senegambia".
Journal of African History
.
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:
10.1017/s0021853700033338
.
ISSN
0021-8537
.
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Savage, Elizabeth, ed. (1992).
The Human Commodity: Perspectives on the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
. London: Frank Cass & Co.
ISBN
0-7146-3469-7
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- ^
Fisher, Allan; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1999).
Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa
. London: C. Hurst.
- ^
Klein, Martin A. (1998).
Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa
. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- ^
Cordell, Dennis D (1985).
Dar al-Kuti and the Last Years of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
- ^
atlasofhumanity.com.
"Sahrawi People"
.
Atlas Of Humanity
. Retrieved
2022-09-09
.
- ^
"The Open Door Web Site : History: A Map of Africa (1914) showing the extent of colonisation"
.
saburchill.com
. Archived from
the original
on 2017-09-09
. Retrieved
2006-11-02
.
- ^
Julio Caro Baroja,
Estudios Saharianos
, Instituto de Estudios Africanos, Madrid, 1955. Re-edited 1990: Ediciones Jucar.
ISBN
84-334-7027-2
- ^
Davidson, Basil (1978).
Let freedom come: Africa in modern history
. Little, Brown.
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.
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Cowl, Carl; Augier, Pierre (September 1977). "Algeria (Sahara)".
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:
10.2307/850751
.
ISSN
0014-1836
.
JSTOR
850751
.
- ^
"Appendix 2. Tribes in Western Sahara",
Sovereignty in Exile
, University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 247?250, 2017-01-31,
doi
:
10.9783/9780812293159-011
,
ISBN
978-0-8122-9315-9
- ^
Smith, James D.D. (2018-03-13), "The Imposed Cease-fire: "YOU can't make us"
",
Stopping Wars
, Routledge, pp. 217?248,
doi
:
10.4324/9780429497117-9
,
ISBN
978-0-429-49711-7
- ^
"Morocco says Polisario threatens peace in Maghreb"
.
Reuters
. 2007-12-12. Archived from
the original
on 2007-12-15
. Retrieved
2007-12-12
.
- ^
"Deadly clashes as Morocco breaks up Western Sahara camp"
.
BBC
. 2010-09-11
. Retrieved
2010-11-13
.
- ^
Doherty, Brian (March 15, 2020).
"West Saharan Group Takes New Zealand Superannuation Fund to Court over 'Blood Phosphate'
"
.
The Guardian
. Retrieved
March 15,
2020
.
- ^
Habibulah Mohamed Lamin (20 November 2020).
"Tired of stalemate, Sahrawis support Polisario military action against Morocco"
.
Middle East Eye
. Retrieved
22 November
2020
.
- ^
McIntosh, Roderick J. (1998). "Chapter 2".
The Peoples of the Middle Niger
. Oxford.
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Territories
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South America
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- New Granada
(
Colombia
,
Ecuador
,
Panama
,
Venezuela, part of Guyana
, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)
- Peru
(Peru,
Acre
,
Chile
)
- Rio de la Plata
(
Argentina
,
Paraguay
,
Charcas
(Bolivia),
Banda Oriental
(Uruguay),
Misiones Orientales
,
Malvinas
)
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Administrative subdivisions
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Sovereign states
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States with limited
recognition
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Dependencies and
other territories
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