Major heat wave in Europe
2003 European heat wave
The difference in average temperature (2000, 2001, 2002 and 2004) from 2003, covering the date range of 20 July ? 20 August
[1]
|
Type
| Heat wave
|
---|
Areas
| Europe
|
---|
Start date
| July 2003
(
2003-07
)
|
---|
End date
| August 2003
(
2003-08
)
|
---|
|
Deaths
| 72,000
- Italy: ~20,000
- France: 14,802-19,000
- Spain: 12,963
- Germany: ~9500
- United Kingdom: ~2,000
- Portugal: 1,953
- Netherlands: ~1,500
|
---|
The
2003 European heat wave
saw the hottest summer recorded in Europe since at least 1540.
[2]
[3]
France
was hit especially hard. The
heat wave
led to health crises in several countries and combined with
drought
to create a
crop
shortfall in parts of
Southern Europe
. The death toll has been estimated at more than 70,000.
[4]
[5]
The predominant heat was recorded in July and August, partly a result of the western European
seasonal lag
from the maritime influence of the Atlantic warm waters in combination with hot continental air and strong southerly winds.
[
citation needed
]
By country
[
edit
]
France
[
edit
]
In France, 14,802 heat-related deaths (mostly among the elderly) occurred during the heat wave, according to the French National Institute of Health.
[6]
[7]
France does not commonly have very hot summers, particularly in the northern areas,
[8]
but eight consecutive days with temperatures of more than 40 °C (104 °F) were recorded in
Auxerre
, Yonne in early August 2003.
[9]
Because of the usually relatively mild summers, most people did not know how to react to very high temperatures (for instance, with respect to
rehydration
). Most single-family homes and residential facilities were not equipped with central
air conditioning
. While contingency plans were made for a variety of natural and man-made catastrophes, high temperatures had rarely been considered a major hazard.
[
citation needed
]
The catastrophe occurred in August, a month in which many people, including government ministers and physicians, are on holiday. Many bodies were not claimed for many weeks because relatives were on holiday. A refrigerated warehouse outside Paris was used by undertakers as they did not have enough space in their own facilities. On 3 September 2003, 57 bodies were still left unclaimed in the Paris area, and were buried.
[10]
The high number of deaths can be explained by the conjunction of seemingly unrelated events. Most nights in France are cool, even in summer. As a consequence, houses (usually of stone, concrete, or brick construction) do not warm too much during the daytime and radiate minimal heat at night, and air conditioning is usually unnecessary. During the heat wave, temperatures remained at record highs even at night, breaking the usual cooling cycle.
[
citation needed
]
Elderly people living by themselves had never faced such extreme heat before and did not know how to react or were too mentally or physically impaired by the heat to make the necessary adaptations themselves. Elderly people with family support or those residing in nursing homes were more likely to have others who could make the adjustments for them. This led to unexpected survival rates with the weakest group having fewer deaths than the more physically fit; most of the heat victims came from the group of elderly not requiring constant medical care; often childless women who lived alone.
[11]
That shortcomings of the nation's health system could allow such a death toll is a controversy in France. The administration of
President
Jacques Chirac
and Prime Minister
Jean-Pierre Raffarin
laid the blame on families who had left their elderly behind without caring for them, the
35-hour workweek
, which affected the amount of time doctors could work, and
family practitioners
vacationing in August. Many companies traditionally closed in August, so people had no choice about when to vacation. Family doctors were still in the habit of vacationing at the same time. It is not clear that more physicians would have helped, as the main limitation was not the health system, but locating old people needing assistance.
[
citation needed
]
The
opposition
, as well as many of the editorials of the French local press, blamed the administration. Many blamed Health Minister
Jean-Francois Mattei
for failing to return from his vacation when the heat wave became serious, and his aides for blocking emergency measures in public hospitals (such as the recalling of physicians). A particularly vocal critic was Dr.
Patrick Pelloux
, head of the union of emergency physicians, who blamed the Raffarin administration for ignoring warnings from health and emergency professionals and trying to minimize the crisis. Mattei lost his ministerial post in a cabinet reshuffle on 31 March 2004.
[
citation needed
]
Not everyone blamed the government. "The French family structure is more dislocated than elsewhere in Europe, and prevailing social attitudes hold that once older people are closed behind their apartment doors or in nursing homes, they are someone else's problem", said Stephane Mantion, an official with the
French Red Cross
. "These thousands of elderly victims didn't die from a heat wave as such, but from the isolation and insufficient assistance they lived with day in and out, and which almost any crisis situation could render fatal."
[12]
Moreover, the French episode of heat wave in 2003 shows how heat wave dangers result from the intricate association of natural and social factors. Although research established that heat waves represent a major threat for public health, France had no policy in place. Until the 2003 event, heat waves were a strongly underestimated risk in the French context, which partly explains the high number of victims.
[13]
Below are statistics for the month of August 2003 in France.
Location
|
Avg high °C
|
Avg low °C
|
Aug'03 high °C
|
Aug'03 mean °C
|
Aug'03 low °C
|
Max temp °C
|
Max mean °C
|
Max low °C
|
2?13 Aug'03 high °C
|
2?13 Aug'03 low °C
|
High >35 °C days
|
High >30 °C days
|
Mean >30 °C days
|
|
Low >25 °C days
|
Low >20 °C days
|
Auxerre
|
25.8
|
14.1
|
32.5
|
25.0
|
17.5
|
41.1
|
32.0
|
23.3
|
39.3
|
21.1
|
11
|
19
|
9
|
23
|
0
|
10
|
Bastia
|
29.3
|
19.4
|
33.2
|
28.2
|
23.1
|
37.9
|
30.8
|
25.0
|
33.9
|
23.4
|
7
|
31
|
3
|
31
|
2
|
31
|
Biarritz
|
24.7
|
17.0
|
28.2
|
24.0
|
19.8
|
40.6
|
31.0
|
23.5
|
31.6
|
21.3
|
3
|
6
|
1
|
25
|
0
|
13
|
Bordeaux
|
27.1
|
15.7
|
32.1
|
25.8
|
19.4
|
40.7
|
31.5
|
23.5
|
38.0
|
21.4
|
12
|
20
|
6
|
28
|
0
|
13
|
Boulogne-sur-Mer
|
20.5
|
14.9
|
23.3
|
20.0
|
16.8
|
34.8
|
29.5
|
24.1
|
27.7
|
19.2
|
0
|
5
|
0
|
7
|
0
|
6
|
Grenoble
|
26.4
|
14.0
|
33.1
|
24.8
|
16.5
|
39.5
|
29.2
|
20.2
|
37.6
|
17.7
|
12
|
23
|
0
|
27
|
0
|
2
|
Lille
|
23.3
|
13.8
|
26.6
|
21.1
|
15.5
|
36.6
|
28.2
|
20.8
|
32.2
|
18.3
|
3
|
9
|
0
|
11
|
0
|
3
|
Lorient
|
22.6
|
13.4
|
28.0
|
21.8
|
15.6
|
37.5
|
29.3
|
21.0
|
33.0
|
18.4
|
4
|
11
|
0
|
15
|
0
|
4
|
Lyon
|
27.2
|
16.0
|
33.6
|
26.8
|
20.0
|
40.5
|
31.2
|
23.2
|
38.4
|
21.5
|
11
|
25
|
8
|
30
|
0
|
17
|
Marseille
|
28.7
|
18.7
|
34.0
|
28.2
|
22.4
|
37.7
|
31.2
|
26.6
|
35.8
|
22.9
|
12
|
29
|
5
|
31
|
2
|
28
|
Metz
|
24.8
|
13.6
|
31.0
|
23.8
|
16.5
|
39.5
|
30.4
|
22.3
|
37.4
|
19.1
|
11
|
16
|
2
|
18
|
0
|
4
|
Montpellier
|
28.9
|
18.5
|
32.2
|
26.8
|
21.4
|
36.1
|
29.6
|
24.6
|
33.3
|
21.4
|
2
|
27
|
0
|
31
|
0
|
27
|
Nancy
|
24.7
|
13.2
|
31.3
|
23.7
|
16.1
|
39.3
|
29.1
|
22.2
|
37.2
|
18.0
|
11
|
16
|
0
|
19
|
0
|
3
|
Nantes
|
25.0
|
14.2
|
30.1
|
23.7
|
17.2
|
39.2
|
31.3
|
23.8
|
35.0
|
19.6
|
7
|
13
|
2
|
20
|
0
|
6
|
Nice
|
27.7
|
20.5
|
31.2
|
27.5
|
23.7
|
35.0
|
31.4
|
27.7
|
32.4
|
25.3
|
1
|
22
|
4
|
31
|
6
|
31
|
Nimes
|
30.6
|
18.4
|
36.0
|
28.5
|
21.0
|
40.5
|
30.8
|
24.3
|
38.5
|
21.2
|
22
|
30
|
8
|
22
|
0
|
22
|
Paris
|
25.0
|
15.7
|
29.9
|
24.4
|
18.8
|
39.5
|
32.5
|
25.5
|
36.8
|
22.6
|
9
|
13
|
8
|
17
|
2
|
11
|
Rennes
|
24.3
|
13.7
|
29.8
|
23.1
|
16.8
|
39.5
|
31.8
|
24.0
|
34.3
|
19.1
|
6
|
13
|
2
|
19
|
0
|
4
|
Saint-Etienne
|
26.3
|
13.8
|
32.0
|
24.9
|
17.8
|
39.3
|
30.0
|
22.6
|
37.0
|
19.6
|
11
|
19
|
1
|
25
|
0
|
7
|
Strasbourg
|
25.4
|
14.1
|
31.9
|
24.4
|
16.8
|
38.5
|
29.2
|
20.8
|
36.6
|
18.6
|
10
|
18
|
0
|
24
|
0
|
4
|
Toulouse
|
27.9
|
16.5
|
34.0
|
27.0
|
20.0
|
40.7
|
31.8
|
23.9
|
38.8
|
21.4
|
15
|
27
|
8
|
29
|
0
|
15
|
Tours
|
25.4
|
13.7
|
31.4
|
24.5
|
17.5
|
39.8
|
31.2
|
22.6
|
37.3
|
21.2
|
11
|
14
|
5
|
21
|
0
|
10
|
The 2003 heatwave served as a wake-up call for many cities to take action on reducing climate risks in
urban areas
. The following year, the country drew up the National Heat Wave Plan built on national forecasting and
alert systems
. Despite hotter summers since, the death toll has been significantly lowered. In addition to a major effort to issue warning messages in time, the plan includes measures such as cooling rooms at senior centers, replacing tarmac at playgrounds with more heat
reflective materials
, and mandatory
insulation in construction
regulation. This reflects a growing awareness of the benefit of an integrated response to risks like heatwaves, compared to stand-alone technologies and projects and greater attention paid to
green and blue infrastructure
in
city planning
. Since 2012, French construction standards for new buildings and, to a lesser extent for existing buildings, have included requirements regarding comfort during heatwaves. In Paris, adding parks and
green spaces
has been another key solution to heatwaves. Urban greening is most effective when green spaces are watered during a heatwave. Doing so increases the cooling effect from
evapotranspiration
.
[14]
Portugal
[
edit
]
In Portugal, there were an estimated 1,953 excess deaths (data corrected, range 1,866 to 2,039); 43% higher than the expected number for that year.
[15]
1 August 2003 was the hottest day in centuries, with night temperatures well above 30 °C (86 °F). At dawn that same day, a freak storm developed in the southern region of the country. Over the next week, a hot, strong
sirocco
wind contributed to the spread of extensive forest-fires.
[16]
[17]
Five percent of Portugal's countryside and 10% of the forests (215,000 hectares
[7]
or an estimated 2,150 km
2
(830 sq mi)), were destroyed, and 18 people died in the flames. In
Amareleja
, one of the hottest cities in Europe, temperatures reached as high as 48 °C (118 °F).
Luxembourg
[
edit
]
In
Findel
,
Luxembourg
, the temperature reached 37.9 °C (100.2 °F) on 8 and 12 August, making it the country's highest temperature since records began in 1947.
[18]
This temperature record was later broken in July 2019.
[19]
Netherlands
[
edit
]
About 1,500
[7]
[20]
heat-related deaths occurred in the
Netherlands
, again largely the elderly. The heat wave broke no records,
[
citation needed
]
although four tropical weather-designated days in mid-July, preceding the official wave, are not counted due to a cool day in between and the nature of the Netherlands specification/definition of a heat wave.
[20]
The highest temperature recorded this heatwave was on 7 August, when in
Arcen
, in
Limburg
, a temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) was reached, 0.8 °C below the national record (since 1904). A higher temperature had only been recorded twice before. On 8 August, a temperature of 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) was recorded, and 12 August had a temperature of 37.2 °C (99.0 °F).
[21]
Spain
[
edit
]
Initially, 141 deaths were attributed to the heat wave in Spain.
[22]
A further research of INE estimated a 12,963 excess of deaths during summer of 2003.
[22]
Temperature records were broken in various cities, with the heat wave being more felt in typically cooler northern Spain.
Record temperatures were felt in:
Italy
[
edit
]
The summer of 2003 was among the warmest in the preceding three centuries.
[28]
The weather station of
Catenanuova
, in
Sicily
, had a monthly mean of 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) in July 2003, with an absolute maximum of 46.0 °C (114.8 °F) on 17 July, with monthly mean maximum temperatures of 36.0 °C (96.8 °F), 38.9 °C (102.0 °F) and 38.0 °C (100.4 °F) in June, July, and August, respectively.
[29]
On some days, the increase in power consumption, paired with a 800MW reduction of the electricity imported from France, itself coping with the heat wave, compelled the Italian power companies to set up
rolling blackouts
.
[30]
Italy estimated that the number of heat wave related deaths was approximately 20,000.
[31]
Germany
[
edit
]
In Germany, shipping could not navigate the
Elbe
or
Danube
, as a result of low water levels. Low water levels at the Rhine led to a reduction of cargo capacity by 70% to 80%. The drought also led to a reduction in agrucultural production. Coal Power Plants and Nuclear Power Plants had to reduce their electricity production because they could not discharge cooling water into the rivers because of their already high water temperature. Together with the limited output of hydroelectric power stations, this led to a rise in electricity prices.
[32]
Summer 2003 was with an average Temperature of 19.6 °C the warmest in recorded History of Germany. On August 9 temperatures rose to 40.2 °C in Karlsruhe and again to 40.2 °C on August 13 in Karlsruhe and Freiburg.
[33]
The number of heat related deaths was estimated to be 9500.
[34]
Switzerland
[
edit
]
Melting
glaciers
in the
Alps
caused avalanches and flash floods in Switzerland. A new nationwide record temperature of 41.5 °C (106.7 °F) was recorded in
Grono
,
Graubunden
.
[35]
United Kingdom
[
edit
]
The United Kingdom experienced one of its hottest summers on record with temperatures well above average.
Atlantic
cyclones
brought cool and wet weather for a short while at the end of July and beginning of August before the temperatures started to increase substantially on 3 August. Several weather records were broken in the United Kingdom, including a new record for the country's highest ever recorded temperature of 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) at
Faversham
in
Kent
on 10 August, which remained the highest recorded temperature in the UK until the
heatwave in July 2019
.
[36]
This was the first occasion on which temperatures exceeding 38 °C (100 °F) had ever been officially recorded in the UK.
[36]
Scotland
broke its highest temperature record with 32.9 °C (91.2 °F) recorded in
Greycrook
in the Scottish borders on 9 August.
Due to a number of deaths, the UK government released its Heat Health Watch system, issuing warnings if temperatures rise above 30 °C in the day and 15 °C at night.
[37]
According to the BBC, over 2,000 more people than usual may have died in the United Kingdom during the 2003 heatwave.
[38]
The
tarmac
melted on part of the
M25
between Junctions 26 and 27,
[39]
and rails buckled from expansion on the hottest day in England in 13 years, while two teenaged boys drowned while trying to escape the excessive heat.
[40]
Ireland
[
edit
]
The summer of 2003 was warmer than average in Ireland, but the heat was far less pronounced there than in the rest of Europe. August was by far the warmest, sunniest, and driest month, with temperatures roughly 2 °C above average. The highest temperature recorded was 28.4 °C (83.1 °F) at
Belderrig
,
County Mayo
on 8 August.
[41]
[42]
[43]
Agricultural impact
[
edit
]
Crops in Southern Europe suffered the most from drought.
Wheat
[
edit
]
These shortfalls in
wheat
harvest occurred as a result of the long drought.
[
citation needed
]
- France ? 20%
- Italy ? 13%
- United Kingdom ? 12%
- Ukraine
? 75% (unknown if affected by heatwave or an early freeze that year)
- Moldova
? 80%
Many other countries had shortfalls of 5?10%, and the EU total production was down by 10 million tonnes, or 10%.
[
citation needed
]
Grapes
[
edit
]
The heatwave greatly accelerated the ripening of
grapes
; also, the heat
dehydrated
the grapes, making for more concentrated juice. By mid-August, the grapes in certain
vineyards
had already reached their optimal
sugar content
, possibly resulting in 12.0°?12.5° wines (see
alcoholic degree
). Because of that, and also of the impending change to rainy weather, the
harvest
was started much earlier than usual (e.g. in mid-August for areas that are normally harvested in September).
The wines from 2003, although in scarce quantity, were predicted to have exceptional quality, especially in France. The heatwave made Hungary fare extremely well in the Vinalies 2003 International wine contest: a total of nine gold and nine silver medals were awarded to Hungarian winemakers.
[44]
Oceanic impact
[
edit
]
The anomalous overheating affecting the atmosphere also created anomalies on sea surface
stratification
in the
Mediterranean Sea
and on the surface currents, as well. A seasonal current of the central Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic Ionian Stream (AIS), was affected by the warm temperatures, resulting in modifications in its path and intensity. The AIS is important for the reproduction biology of important
pelagic
commercial fish species, so the heatwave may have influenced indirectly the stocks of these species.
[45]
Economic impact
[
edit
]
Extreme heat undermines the working capacity of individuals, resulting in lower productivity, and thus economic output. In 2003, economic losses attributed to excessive heat amounted to 0.5% of European
Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).
[46]
This is 2.5 times higher than the losses experienced during an average year over the historical period 1981?2010. Losses of over 1% of GDP were recorded in areas with high exposure to heat and showing a large share of outdoor work.
[
citation needed
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Emily Black; Mike Blackburn; Giles Harrison; Brian Hoskins; John Methven.
"Factors Contributing to the Summer 2003 European Heatwave"
(PDF)
.
Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, UK
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 13 October 2005
. Retrieved
11 January
2022
.
- ^
"WMO: Unprecedented sequence of extreme weather events ? News ? Professional Resources ? PreventionWeb.net"
. Archived from
the original
on 18 October 2015
. Retrieved
11 June
2011
.
- ^
"Europe just had its warmest summer on record, EU scientists say"
. Reuters. 7 September 2021
. Retrieved
4 October
2021
.
- ^
Robi, Jean-Marie; Cheung, Siu Lan K.; Le Roy, Sophie; Van Oyen, Herman; Griffiths, Clare; Michel, Jean-Pierre; Herrmann, Francois Richard (2008).
"Solongo"
.
Comptes Rendus Biologies
.
331
(2): 171?178.
doi
:
10.1016/j.crvi.2007.12.001
.
ISSN
1631-0691
.
PMID
18241810
.
- ^
UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
(2020).
"The human cost of disasters: an overview of the last 20 years (2000-2019)"
(PDF)
.
- ^
Earth Policy Institute article
Archived
11 March 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
Data for more countries:
Archived
8 July 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
a
b
c
"European summer heatwave 2003"
.
Met Office
. n.d. Archived from
the original
on 23 October 2008.
- ^
CIA-The World Factbook,
https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/france/
[1]
- ^
"Historical stats for Auxerre August 2003"
. Meteo Climat
. Retrieved
16 February
2017
.
- ^
"France buries its unclaimed dead"
.
BBC News
. 3 September 2003
. Retrieved
11 July
2019
.
- ^
Wolf, Laurent (26 August 2003).
"A Paris, les morts delaisses de la canicule"
.
Le Temps
.
- ^
Crumley, Bruce.
Elder Careless
Time Magazine
, 24 August 2003
- ^
32. Poumadere, M., Mays, C., Le Mer, S. and Blong, R. (2005), The 2003 Heat Wave in France: Dangerous Climate Change Here and Now. Risk Analysis, 25: 1483?1494.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1539-6924.2005.00694.x
[2]
Archived
18 September 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"Green Technology Book 2022 : Solutions for climate change adaptation"
.
www.wipo.int
. 2022. p. 137
. Retrieved
5 December
2022
.
- ^
"Onda de calor de Agosto de 2003: os seus efeitos sobre a mortalidade da populacao portuguesa"
(PDF)
(in Portuguese). Instituto Nacional de Saude Dr. Ricardo Jorge. p. 16. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 24 June 2009
. Retrieved
6 July
2009
.
De acordo com o periodo de comparacao que se considerou mais adequado (bienio 2000-2001), o numero de obitos esperado foi de 4499,3 e o excesso foi de 1953 obitos (IC95:1866-2029). O numero de obitos observado foi, assim, 43% superior ao numero esperado.
- ^
"Portugal Diario"
(in Portuguese). Portugaldiario.iol.pt. Archived from
the original
on 12 January 2008
. Retrieved
15 March
2010
.
- ^
Trigo, Ricardo M.; Pereira, Jose M. C.; Pereira, Mario G.; Mota, Bernardo; Calado, Teresa J.; Dacamara, Carlos C.; Santo, Fatima E. (15 November 2006).
"Atmospheric conditions associated with the exceptional fire season of 2003 in Portugal"
.
International Journal of Climatology
.
26
(13): 1741?1757.
Bibcode
:
2006IJCli..26.1741T
.
doi
:
10.1002/joc.1333
.
S2CID
128435348
.
- ^
"Forte chaleur au Luxembourg - Record de la temperature maximale pour le mois de juillet"
(in French). MeteoLux
. Retrieved
23 July
2019
.
- ^
"Luxembourg scorches on hottest day ever"
. 26 July 2019.
- ^
a
b
- ^
KNMI, Klimatologie; Job Verkaik; Jon Nellestijn; Rob Sluijter.
"KNMI ? Daggegevens van het weer in Nederland"
.
Archived
from the original on 8 August 2009
. Retrieved
6 August
2009
.
- ^
a
b
"La ola de calor de 2003 coincidio con un incremento de 13.000 muertes"
.
El Pais
. Madrid. 29 June 2004
. Retrieved
2 August
2016
.
- ^
History for Girona, Spain
Weather Underground
. 13 August 2003. Last Retrieved 9 February 2007.
- ^
a
b
"Valores extremos ? Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia ? AEMET. Gobierno de Espana"
(in Spanish). Aemet.es. Archived from
the original
on 17 March 2010
. Retrieved
15 March
2010
.
- ^
History for Vigo, Spain
.
Weather Underground
. August 2003. Last Retrieved 9 February 2007.
- ^
History for Barcelona, Spain
.
Weather Underground
. 13 August 2003. Last Retrieved 9 February 2007.
- ^
"Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia ? AEMET. Gobierno de Espana"
(PDF)
(in Spanish). Inm.es. 27 February 2010. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 29 September 2007
. Retrieved
15 March
2010
.
- ^
"L'ondata di calore dell'estate 2003"
.
Ministero della Salute, L'ondata di calore dell'estate 2003
. Ministero della Salute. Archived from
the original
on 20 July 2011
. Retrieved
23 April
2011
.
- ^
"Table I ? Daily temperature readings"
(PDF)
.
Osservatorio delle Acque (Water Monitoring) Annual data
. Dipartimento dell'Acqua e dei Rifiuti. 2003. p. 45. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 14 March 2012
. Retrieved
23 April
2011
.
- ^
Sera, RCS Corriere della (6 July 2009).
"Caldo record, in arrivo altri blackout elettrici"
.
Corriere della Sera
(in Italian)
. Retrieved
19 June
2022
.
- ^
"Italy puts 2003 heat toll at 20,000"
.
The New York Times
. 28 June 2005.
- ^
"Das Niedrigwasser des Rheins im Sommer und Herbst 2003"
.
undine.bafg.de
. Retrieved
16 July
2023
.
- ^
"Wetter und Klima - Deutscher Wetterdienst - Leistungen - Der Rekordsommer 2003"
.
www.dwd.de
. Retrieved
16 July
2023
.
- ^
Arzteblatt, Deutscher Arzteverlag GmbH, Redaktion Deutsches (1 July 2022).
"Hitzebedingte Mortalitat in Deutschland zwischen 1992 und 2021"
.
Deutsches Arzteblatt
(in German)
. Retrieved
16 July
2023
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
"MeteoSwiss ? Switzerland"
. Archived from
the original
on 3 May 2008.
- ^
a
b
"100 °F: Britain's hottest day"
.
Independent.co.uk
. 23 September 2015. Archived from
the original
on 1 May 2022.
- ^
"Great weather events: Temperatures records fall in summer 2003"
. Met Office. 19 November 2008. Archived from
the original
on 16 May 2007
. Retrieved
15 March
2010
.
- ^
"Deaths up by 2,000 in heatwave"
.
BBC News
. 3 October 2003
. Retrieved
3 December
2011
.
- ^
"Who, what, why: When does tarmac melt?"
.
BBC
. 15 July 2013
. Retrieved
9 August
2018
.
- ^
Pook, Sally (7 August 2003).
"Rails buckle and roads melt in heat"
.
The Telegraph
. Retrieved
9 August
2018
.
- ^
"Met Eireann ? Monthly Weather Bulletin (June 2003)"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 7 November 2011
. Retrieved
13 October
2011
.
- ^
"Met Eireann ? Monthly Weather Bulletin (July 2003)"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 7 November 2011
. Retrieved
13 October
2011
.
- ^
"Met Eireann ? Monthly Weather Bulletin (August 2003)"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 3 April 2012
. Retrieved
13 October
2011
.
- ^
"Union des oenologues de France"
. Oenologuesdefrance.fr. Archived from
the original
on 9 April 2010
. Retrieved
15 March
2010
.
- ^
Olita, A.; Sorgente, R.; Natale, S.; Gaber?ek, S.; Ribotti, A.; Bonanno, A.; Patti, B. (24 May 2007).
"Effects of 2003 heatwave on the Sea Surface in Central Mediterranean"
.
Ocean Science
.
3
(2). Ocean-sci.net: 273?289.
doi
:
10.5194/os-3-273-2007
. Retrieved
15 March
2010
.
- ^
Garcia-Leon, David; Casanueva, Ana; Standardi, Gabriele; Burgstall, Annkatrin; Flouris, Andreas D.; Nybo, Lars (2021).
"Current and projected regional economic impacts of heatwaves in Europe"
.
Nature Communications
.
12
(1): 5807.
Bibcode
:
2021NatCo..12.5807G
.
doi
:
10.1038/s41467-021-26050-z
.
ISSN
2041-1723
.
PMC
8490455
.
PMID
34608159
.
|
---|
|
Asia
| |
---|
Europe
| Before 1950
| |
---|
1950?1999
| |
---|
2000?present
| |
---|
|
---|
North America
| Before 1950
| |
---|
1950?1999
| |
---|
2000?present
| |
---|
|
---|
Oceania
| |
---|
South America
| |
---|
Related
| |
---|