한국   대만   중국   일본 
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في هذه المقالة انحياز ثقافي أو جغرافي.
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????? - ????? ????? - ????? ???? ?????? حول القالب

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تصوير لشبكة الإنترنت
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???? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????. ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? . [1] ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ???????? . ??? ????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? . [2]

??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? (NPL) ??????? ?????? (Merit) ???? ?? (Tymnet) ????? ?? (Telenet) ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ????????? . [3] ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? (??????? ???????) ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????. [4] [5] ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????.

?? ??? 1981?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? (NSF) ?????? ???? ???? ??????? (CSNET). ?? ??? 1982?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????????? ???????? (TCP/IP) [6] ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? . ??? ????? ???????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ????? 1986? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? (NSFNET) [7] ? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ???????. ???? ??????? ????? ???????? (ISP) ????????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? 1990?. ?? ????? ????? 1989? ??? ????? 1990?? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? [8] ? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? 1995?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????? .

?? ????????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? (CERN) ??? ????? ???? ????? ? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????? . [9] ??? ?????? ??????????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ???? ???????? (VoIP) ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? . ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? (vBNS) ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? .

????? ???????? ????? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? . ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ????????? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ???? 1% ?? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? 1993? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? 51% ?? ????? 2000? ???????? 97% ?? ????? 2007. [10] ????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? .

????? ????? ????????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ???????? ????????? (????)

?????? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? . ?? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? [11] ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? . ????? ????? ????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???.

?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????? ??? ????? ????????? . ??? ??? 1949?? ??? ????? ????? ≪?????? ??????? ?? ???????≫ (A Mathematical Theory of Communication)? [12] ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????????? .

????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ? ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????????? . ???? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ???????? ??? ????????? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ???????. ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ??????.

????? ??????? ?????????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???????????? . ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? (LAN). ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? (WAN)? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ?? ????? ???????.

??????? ?????? [ ??? ]

?? ???? ?? ????? 1960?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ??????: [13] ≪??????? ??? ??????? ???????≫ (Man-Computer Symbiosis) ????? ????? ??????? (Joseph Licklider) ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??????????? (BBN) ???? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????????. ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? 1962? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??????: [14] ≪??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????≫ (On-Line Man-Computer Communication)? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? .

?? ?????? ?? ????? 1962?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? (IPTO) ???? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? (SAC HQ)? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ≪??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????≫ (Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network). [15] ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????: ?????? ????? ????? ????? (SDC) ?? ????? ?????? ? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ??????????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? . ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????.

??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? 1964?? ?? ??? 5 ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ????????. ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? 1973? ???? ?????. [16]

?? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????: [17]

≪ .. ???? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??: ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????????.≫

????? ????? ????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ????? ?????
???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????.

?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????. ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???????. ?? ??????????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???????? . [18] ??? ????? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ≪??? ???????≫. (Message Blocks). [19]

????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???. ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ???????? . [20] [21] ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? . [22]

??? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? (Store and Forward)? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??????. ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????. [23]

????? ???? ???????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ???????? ?????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ???? ????? ???????? ??????
????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? .

??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? . [24] [25] ?? ??? 1965?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ≪??????? ??????≫? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ? [26] ???? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??????. [27]

?? ???? ????? 1969?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ???????. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??????. ?? ????? 1976? ????? ?????? ???? 12 ???? ? 75 ?????? ? [28] ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? 1986?. [29]

???? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????. [30]

???? ???????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ??????
???? ???? ???????? ?? ????? 1971?.

???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? (IPTO) ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ????? 1966?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ??????????? ? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? 29 ?????? 1969? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????. [31]

??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????: [32]

≪ ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? (L) ?????? ??? ??????: ?? ???? ????? (L)? ????? ??????? ??? ??? (L)? ???? ????? (O)? ?????? ?? ???? ????? (O)? ??? ???? .. ?? ????? ????? (G) ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????≫
???? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? 25 ??? ??? ????? ???????? ? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? 1969? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????.

?? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? 1969?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ???????? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????? . ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? (ALOHA) [33] ??? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? 1981? ???? (213) ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????????. [34] [35]

?????? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ??? ????????? (RFC) ???? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ( RFC 1 )? [36] ????????? ≪??????? ??????≫ (Host Software)? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????????? ? ?????? ?? 7 ????? 1969?? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? 1972?. [37]

????? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????. ?????? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? (NCP)? [38] ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? (TCP) [39] ???? ???? ?????????? ???????? (TCP/IP). ?? 1 ????? 1983?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?????? (Flag Day)? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ???????. [40]

??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????? ??? 25 (X.25)? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? (NORSAR)? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? 1972?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???????? .

???? ????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ????? (????)

??? ???? ????? ( ??????????? : Merit Network )? ?? ????? 1966? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????. [41] ?? ?????? ?? ????? 1971?? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? (NSF)? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? (IBM) ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? . ?? ?????? 1972? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????. ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? (????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ????) ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??? Tymnet ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?? ? X.25 ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? X.25 ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? TCP/IP ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????. [42] [43] ?? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? NSFNET ???? ?? ????? 1980s.

???? ?????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ?????? (????)
????? ??? ???? ??????. [44]

?????? ( ????????? : CYCLADES )? ???? ?????????:  [siklad] ? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ????? . ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? 1973?? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ???. ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????. [45] [46]

X.25 ?????? ???????? ?????? [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: ???? ?????????? X25 ? ???? ???? ???????? ? ???? ??
1974 ABC ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??????.

???????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??? X.25 ????????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? X.25 ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? 1974 ???? X.25 ?????? ????? SERCnet ??? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???? ??? JANET ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? X.25 ?? ???? 1976. [47]

????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ? Tymnet ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? (IPSS) ?? ??? 1978 ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ??? 1981 ?????? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????. [48]

??? ??? ARPANET X.25 ??? ????? ???? ????????? ??????? ????Telenet ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??ARPANET.

??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???? TTY ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???CompuServe X.25 ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? Tymnet ?????????? ???? ?? ??? 1979 ???? CompuServe ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? 1980 ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? (AOL) ???????? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? (BBS) ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? FidoNet ???? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????. [49]

UUCP and Usenet [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: UUCP ? ?????

?? ??? 1979 ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??????? Bourne shell ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? 1980 ????? ???? ????? ????? UUCP ??? ?????Usenet ????? ? UUCPnet ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? FidoNet ?????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????UUCP ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????? X.25 ?? ??? ????? ARPANET ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???CSNET ?Bitnet ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? 1981 ????? ??? ???????? ?? UUCP ??? 550 ?? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? 940 ?? ??? 1984. - ???? Sublink ???? ???? ??? ??? 1987 ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? 1989? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? UUCP ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????????? (????? 100 ?? ??? ?????) ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ??????. [50]

??? ??????? ?????? ???????? (1973-1995) [ ??? ]

???? ?????????? ???????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ???? ?????????? ????????
????? ???????? (TCP/IP) ???? ?? ???? ???????????? ????????.

?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????????. ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? 1973? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ARPANET ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? (???? ???? CYCLADES) ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???????. [51]

??????? ?????????? ?????? RFC 675 ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? 1974 ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? RFCs ????? ??? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?????.

??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????. ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? SF Bay area ? ARPANET ?? 22 ?????? 1977 ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ARPANET ?SRI's ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????. [52] [53]

???????? ?? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? 1974 ??? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ??? 1978 ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????????? ???? ≪ ?? ?? ??4 ≫. (IPv4 ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ≪ ?? ?? ??6 ≫? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??? 2005 ????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? IPv4 ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ? IPv4 ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? 2015 ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????????.

????? ???????? ???????? ? IPv4 ????? ??? 1981 ????????? ??? 791 ? 792 ? 793? ??????? ?????????. ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ???????? . ?? 1 ????? 1983? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????????? TCP/IP ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ??? NCP protocol ??????. [54]

?? ARPANET ??? NSFNET [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: ?????? ? NSFNET
?? ?? ?? ??????????? (????) TCP/IP ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? 1986.

??? ?? ??? ARPANET ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ARPA ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?ARPA ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ?????????. ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? 1975? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????. ?? ??? 1983 ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??ARPANET ????? ??????? ???? MILNET. ???? MILNET ?? ??? ???? NIPRNET ??? ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ???????? ?? SIPRNET ????? ??? ?JWICS ???? ??? ??? ???.NIPRNET ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ??????.

????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ARPANET ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????????? ??? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????. ??? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ???? ???????????? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????-?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????.

?????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? (NASA)? ???????? ??????? ?????? (NSF)? ?????? ?????? (DOE) ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ? ???????. ??? ????? ???????????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? TCP/IP ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?NSF ???? CSNET ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??ESNet.

T3 NSFNET ?????? ?????? c. 1992

???? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? (NSN) ??????? ??? TCP/IP ?? ????? ?????????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??????. ??? ??? 1989 ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ????????? ???????? (SPAN) ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? TCP/IP ? NSN ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ???? (NASA Science Network ??NSN). ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? (NSI) ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????. ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? 20 ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????.

?? ??? 1981 ???? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? (CSNET ,(CSNET ????? ?? ARPANET ????????TCP/IP ???? TCP/IP ??? X.25 ???? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????.

?? ??? 1986 ????? ???? ?????? ?????? NSFNET ??? ?????? ?????? 56 kbit/s ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ???? NSFNET ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? [55] ??? ????? ??????? ???? NSFNET ???????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? 56 kbit/s ????? ????. ?? ????? NSFNET ??? 1.5 ?????? / ????? ?? ??? 1988 ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ? MCI ????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????????? (FIXes) ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? 1990. ??? ????? ???? ???? NSFNET ???? ??????? ??? 45 ?????? / ????? ?? ??? 1991 ??? ??????? ?? ??? 1995 ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????????.

.

???????? ??? ???????? [ ??? ]

????? ????? ≪????????≫ ?? ??? RFC ?? ???? ??? TCP ???????? ( RFC 675 [56] ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? 1974 ????? ?????? ????????????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ARPANET ??????? ?? NSFNET ?? ????? 1980s? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ????? ???? TCP/IP ????? ???????. [57]

??? ????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? IPSS X.25 ???? ???? ???????? ??? ??? 1984 ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? TCP/IP ??? IPSS. [58]

?????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????. ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ???????? ?????? UUCP ?? FidoNet ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ( FTP ) ?? ???? UUCP ?? ??????. [59]

??????? ?? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? (EGP) ????????? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ( ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ). ???? ???? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ARPANET ?? ??? 1994? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??? ???????? (CIDR) ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????. [60]

TCP/IP ???? ?????? (1980s) [ ??? ]

CERN ????????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??? ???? 1984 ? 1988 ???? CERN ????? ?????? TCP/IP ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????. ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? (??????) ?????? ???? ?????????? ???? ??? ??????? (???? ?? ???? ??????) ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? / ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? TCP/IP ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? 1989.

?? ??? 1988 ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? & ??????????? (CWI) ?? ???????? ?? ????? ???? CERN TCP/IP ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? UUCP Usenet (??????? ???? ?? ??? X. 25 ?????) ??? TCP/IP ??? ??? 1987? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? Cisco ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? TCP/IP CERN ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? Cisco ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ????? UUCP ??????? ??? ??? 1989 ?????? CERN ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???. [61] ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? (RIPE) ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? 1992 ?? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????????.

??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ARPA ???? ???????? ??????????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? X.25 ? UUCPNet ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? X.25 ????????? ?? ??? 1989 ????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? AARNet ?? ??? 1989 ?? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????????.

????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? 1982 ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??4 TCP/IP. [62] [63] ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? UUCP ?? JUNET ?? ??? 1984 ????? ?? NSFNET ?? ??? 1989 ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????? INET'92 ?? ???? ???? ???????? TECHNET ?? ??? 1990 ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???????????? ? UUNET ?? ??? 1992 . [64]

????? ≪?????? ???????≫ ???????? ??????? [ ??? ]

Source: ??????? ?????? ????????? . [65]
???????? ???????: ???? ????????? ? ???? ?????????
???????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? 2012 ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????
Source: ??????? ?????? ????????? . [66]
???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? 2012 ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????
Source: ??????? ?????? ????????? . [67]

??? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???????.

??????? [ ??? ]

??? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? X.25 IPSS ? 2400 ???? ?? ????? UUCP ?? ??? ????????? ????????? ??????? ????????.

??? ????? 1995 ????? ???? ??????? ??????? Ltd. ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ????? NSN ?? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??? 1997 ????? ???? ???? ???? ≪???? ????? ??????≫ ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? C-Band RSCC ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? MAE-West ?? ???? NSN ???????? ???? ???? ?? ???? NSN ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? 64 ?????? / ????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? US Robotics.

??? ??? 1996 ??? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??? 1997 ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? 1998.

????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ????AfriNIC ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? IP ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????. [68]

???? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? (Eassy) ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????. [69]

???? ????????? [ ??? ]

????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? (APNIC) ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????. ????? APNIC ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ????????? (APRICOT). [70]

??? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? (SDN) ?? 15 ???? 1982. ??? ?? ??? SDN ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? 1983 ???????? (UUCP) ????? ????? CSNET ?? ?????? 1984? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??? 1990. [71]

?? ??? 1991 ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? 1994 ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ??????. [72]

?????? ???????? [ ??? ]

???? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???????? (LACNIC) ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? IP ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? LACNIC ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? DNS root ?reverse DNS ???????? ???????? ??????.

???? ???????? ??????? (????? ?????????? / ????? ????????? ??????) [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ???? ?????

?? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ???????.

??? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??????. ??? ??? ??? ???? UUCPNet ? X.25 IPSS ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????????? ?????? ????? UUCPNet ???????? ARPANET ? NSFNET. (??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? UUCP ????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ???????.)

??? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ??????: 1969-2012
Source: Internet Systems Consortium . [73]

?????? ???? ?? ????? ???????????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? PSINet ?UUNET ? Netcom ?Portal Software ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ? UUCP ?????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ? Usenet ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??? 1989 . [74]

?? ??? 1992 ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? 42 U.S.C. § 1862 (g)? ???? ??? ? NSF ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????. [75] [76] ??? ???? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???? ????????. [77]

?????? ??? 1990 ????? ????? ???? ARPANET ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? PSINet ? Alternet ? CERFNet ? ANS CO+RE ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????????. ?? ???NSFNET ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? (CIX)? ?????? ??????? ??????? (MAEs) ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? (NAPs) ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? 30 ????? 1995 ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? NSFNET ?????? ??????. [78] [79] ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????????. ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? (vBNS) ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????. [80]

???? ????? ???????? ?????? ????????? [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: ???? ???????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ? ????? ????? ?????

???? ????? ???????? (???? ??? ???????? ?????? ≪???≫ ?? "W3") ?? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? URI ????????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????????. [81] ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ≪?????≫. ???????? ?? 2010s ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????. [82] [83] [84]

????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????????? (??? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????). ??? ???? ???? ??? ??????-?? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? 1989 ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? 1990 ???? ????? ??? ???? WorldWideWeb ?? ???? ????? Nexus ?????. [85] ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? 1993 ????? (??????? ?? ??? ????) [86] ????? ???? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ?? 1990s. [87] ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ? ????? ??????. [88]

?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? 1993 ?? ??? NCSA Mosaic ??? ????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????????. [89] ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? [90] ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ??? 1994 ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?????? "?????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? 1995 ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ( ??? ?? ?? ) ???? ?????????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ???.

??????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ???? 1990s ??? ????? 2000s (??? 1.0) [ ??? ]

???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 2000s ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? (≪??????? ??????≫ ?????? ?? ??????? ???????) ???? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? (DVD ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? floppy disc ??? CD) ??? ???? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? PHP ?modern Javascript ? Java ?? ?????? ???AJAX ? HTML 4 (???????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ) ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????.

???????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ( ?????? (????) ?eBay ??? ???? ??????) ?????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????.

????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ≪??? 1.0≫ ??? ???? [91] ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????????? [92] ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????CGI ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ????? 3.2 ????? ??? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????GIF ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? [93] ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ???. [94]

????? ?????? ?? ??? 1997 ??? ??? 2001? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ≪??? ???≫ (???? ???? ??? ???? ≪??????? ??????≫ ???? ??????? ???????) ???? ??? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????.

??? ???? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? 2004. ????? ??? ????????? ?? ???:

  • ?????? ??? ≪??? 2.0≫ ?? ??? 2004 (????? ???? ??? ?? ??? 1999)?:* ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? (??? ????????).
  • ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? - ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ???????? (?????? ??? 2010? ????????) ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????????? ????? ?TCP/IP ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????.
  • ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????:* ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ????????? (???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????)?

???? ???? ????? (????? 2007-2008 ??????):

  • ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?????.
  • ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? (SSD).
  • ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ?????????? ?? ??? ?? ???.??.?? (?????) ??? ???? ???????? ???? ??? 1980s ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????. ??????? ARM ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????.

?? ?????? ??? ??? 2.0 ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? 2004-2005 ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? 1.0. [ ????? ????? ]

??? 2.0 [ ??? ]

???? ????? ≪??? 2.0≫ ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? (??? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????????) ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ≪???????? ??????≫ ?? ????? ?????? / ????? 1999 ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????????? ??? ????: [95] [96] [97] [98]

≪?? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? 2.0 ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? [...] ??? ???? ?????????? [...] ??? ???? ????????? ????? ?? [ ...] ???? ??????? ?????? [...] ?????? ??????? ????? ?? [...] ????? ???? ???? [...] ???? ??? ??? ?????????? ????? ??.≫

??? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? 2002-2004 [99] [100] [101] [102] ???? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ??? 2004 ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? 2.0. ?? ????????? ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ? ≪????? ?????≫ ??? ??? ???? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ≪??????? ????? ???? ?? ????≫ [103] ?????? ?? ????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ??????? (?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???) ???? ≪???????≫ ???? ??????.

?? ???? ??? 2.0 ??? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????????? ????????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??????????. ??? ??? 2.0 ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ??? 2.0 ????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ??????. [104] ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ??? ??? 1.0 ???? 2.0.

≪???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? (??????????)≫. [105]

??? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? - ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ????????? ??? ???????.

???? ??????? [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: ????? ??????? ??????? ? ??? ??????

????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ≪??? 2.0≫ ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ≪??? ??? ??????≫ - ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????.

?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? (?? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????)? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???. ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? (??? "m.website.com") ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??? ????????? ? 4G ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ≪???????≫ (?????? ? ≪?????? ???????≫ ?? ≪??????≫) ??? ??? ≪??????≫.

??????? ?? ?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? 22 ????? 2010 ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??. ??? ????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????. [106] (??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???????). ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? Ku band ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? . [107]

???? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ????????? ??????? (DTN) ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? DTN ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? TCP/IP ???????. ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ≪?????? ?????? ??????≫ ?? ?????? 2008. [108] ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? (DTN) ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? (???? ???? ????? ???? ≪??????? ???? ????? ????????≫) ??? ???? / ???? 2009? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? / ???? 2014. [109]

??? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ??????????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????. ???? ????? ?????? 2011 ?? ???? Vint Cerf ?? ???? ? ≪?????????? ????≫ ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? EPOXI ???? (???? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????) ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? 80 ??? ?????. [110]

????? ???????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ???????? ????????????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ( IETF ). [111] ??? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ≪???? ????? ???????? ???????≫ (IANA) ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????. [112] ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ( ????? ) ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ????????.

NIC, InterNIC, IANA and ICANN [ ??? ]

??? ?? ????? ????? IANA ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ?????? ? USC ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? (NIC) ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ? ??????????. ??? ??????? ????? ISI ?????? Iana ???? ????? RFC ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??? 1998. [113]

??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? HOSTS.TXT ?? SRI ??????????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? 1983. [114] ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? (DDN-NIC) ?? SRI ???? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? (.Til ? .gov ? .edu ? .org ? .net ? .com ? .us ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????. [112] ?? ??? 1991 ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? (DISA) ????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????? (Inc)???? ?????? ???? SRI ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? . [115] [116]

???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? / ?????? 1992 ???? ( ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ) ???? ??? ????? ???????? ( RFC 1366 ) [117] ???? ???? ≪??? ???????? ???????? ?????????≫ ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? (??? ?? ???? ≪?????? ?????≫). ?????? ??????? ≪??? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????????≫ ???? ???????. ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? (RIPE NCC) ???? RIR ?? ???? / ???? 1992. ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? (RIR) ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? (APNIC) ?? ????? ?? ??? 1993 ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? . [118]

??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???? mil TLD ??? ??? 1993? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? 1992 InterNIC ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? AT&T ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???-1 ???????? . [119]

?? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?? IANA? IETF ? RIPE NCC ? APNIC ????? ????????? ????????? (FNC) ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???????. [118] ??? ????? ????? RIPE NCC ? APNIC ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????IP ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? (ARIN) ?? ????? ????? / ?????? 1997 ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? . [120]

?? ??? 1998 ???? ????? ?? ?? IANA ?????? InterNIC ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? (????? DNS ??????? IP) ???? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? (IETF) ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? IAB ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ???????. [121] ??? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ICANN [122] ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? DNS ??? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ????? DNS ?????????? ?????????.

?????? ??????? ???? ???????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ?????? ?????? ???? ????????

??? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? (IETF) ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ( IAB ) ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? (IESG) ????? ??? ???? ???????? ( IRTF ).

???? ??? ????? ???????? ( IETF ) ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????. ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ( ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ) ?? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ( ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ) ?? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ???????. [123] [124]

??? ???? ??? ????? ???????? IETF ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?? ????? 1986. ?? ???? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ? ???? ?? ?????? 1986. ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? 1987. ?? ???? / ????? 1987? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???. ??? ??? 1992? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????. ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? 1993. ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????. 2000 ?????. ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????. ??? ???????? ??? ?????????? ?? ???? ??????????. 50?? ??? ?? ?????????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ???????. [123]

???? ??? ????? ???????? (IETF) ??? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????. ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? IETF ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? (IESG) [125] ????? ????? ???????? (IAB) ???? ??????. [126] ????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? IRTF ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? IRSG ?????? ??????? ??? IETF ? IESG ??? ??????? ????? ? IAB ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????. [123] [127]

??? ?????? ??? ??????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ??? ???????

??? ????????? (RFCs) ?? ??????? ???????? ???? IAB ? IESG ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ? IRTF ? RFC 1 ≪???? ???????≫ ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?? ????? 1969 ??? ????? IETF ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ??. [123] [128]

???? RFCs ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????????. [129] ???? ?? ???? RFCs ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??? IESG ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??????. ?????? ???? RFC ?????? ?? ??? IAB ?????? ??IANA ????? ???????? ?? IESG ?????? ?? IESG ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? RFC ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????? ?????????RFC ??????? ???? ≪??? ????? ?????≫ ??????. [123] [128]

????? ???????? [ ??? ]

????? ???????? (ISOC) ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??? 1992 ≪????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????≫. ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? 80 ????????? ????? ?? 50,000 ????? ???????. ????? ??????? ???? ≪?????≫ ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?? 90 ???? ??? ??????. [130]

????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ???: ???? ??? ????? ???????? (IETF) ????? ????? ???????? (IAB) ??????? ????? ????? ???????? (IESG) ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? (IRTF) ??? ???? ISOC ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ??????. [131]

??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????????? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ARPANET ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????. ??? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? 2000 [132] ??? ?????? 2009 ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????????? ????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????. [133] [134] [135] ?????? ?? 1 ?????? 2016 ???? ICANN ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? (NTIA) ??? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? . [136]

????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? (IETF) ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????????.

??? ????? ?????? / ?????? 2005 ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? IGF ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? / ?????? - ????? ?????? / ?????? 2006 ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? [137] ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ≪????? ????????≫ ??? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????????. [138] [139]

????? ???????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ????????.

??? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? ????:

  • ??? ??????? ???????:* ????? ??????? ? ≪?????≫ ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????:* ????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ????????? (??????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???????) ???????? ??? ???? ????:* ?????? ???????? ???????? (??? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ????????).

Net neutrality [ ??? ]

?? 23 ????? 2014 ???? ??? ???? ????????? ?????????? (FCC) ???? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????. [140] [141] [142] ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????. [143] ?? 15 ???? 2014? ???? ???? ????????? ?????????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????: ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????. [144] [145] ?? 10 ?????? 2014 ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????. [146] [147] [148] s ?? 16 ????? 2015? ??? ?????????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ?????????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????????. ISPs [149] [150] ?? 31 ????? 2015? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ????? (≪?? ??? ?????????≫) ????? ?????? (?????? ???????) ?? ????? ????????? ???? 1934 ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? 26 ?????? 2015. [151] [152] [153] [154] [155] ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ????????? [156] ????? ????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? [157] [158] ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? . [159] [160]

?? 26 ?????? 2015 ???? ???? ????????? ????????? FCC ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? (?????? ???????) ?? ????? ????????? ???? 1934 ?????? 706 ?? ????? ????????? ???? 1996 ??? ????????. [161] [162] [163] t. ???? ???? ???? ????????? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????: ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???????. [164]

?? 12 ???? 2015 ????? ???? ????????? ????????? FCC ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????. [165] [166] [167] ?? 13 ????? 2015 ???? ???? ????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ≪?????? ??????≫. [168] [169]

????????? ???????? [ ??? ]

Email and Usenet [ ??? ]

?????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?? ????????. ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??? 1965 ?????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? SDC) Q32) ????? ????? ????? ??????? (CTSS) ?? ???? ?????????? ???????????. [170]

??? ????? ???? ??????? ARPANET ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ARPANET ??? ???? ????? ?? ???????. [171] ?? ??? 1971 ??? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ????? @ ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????.

??? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ARPANET ? BITNET ? NSFNET ???? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??? UUCP ???? ????? ???????? SMTP.

????????? ??? ??? ??? UUCP ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ???????. ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? 1979 ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????. ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????????. ??? ARPANET ? NSFNET ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????? (??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????).

????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ????????. ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????????? "alt.binary". ????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????????? HTTP ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????.

?? Gopher ??? WWW [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ? ???? ???????? ??????

??? ??? ???????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???Archie ? Gopher ? WAIS ?????? ????? FTP ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?. ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ??? 1993 ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????. ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? 1994 ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????. ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????. [172]

???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???????. ??? ??????? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ≪?????≫ ??????? ??? [173] ? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? NLS. [174] ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? HyperCard ??? ???????? (1987) ???? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???????.

??? ?????? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? CERN ????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??????.

?? ??? 1989? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????????? ??? ???? ????? ????????. [175] ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? 2004. [176] ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? HyperCard ??? ViolaWWW.

???? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? [177] ?? ????? ??? ?????? [178] ?? ??? 1993 ??? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? (NCSA-UIUC) ?????? ???? ??????. ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???? 1991 ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? [179] ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ????? WWW ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ≪????? ????????≫ ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? Al Gore ?????????? ?????????.

?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? 1994 ?? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? 11 ????? 1994? ??? ?????????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????????. ???? ??? ?? "??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????. [180]

24 ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ????" (8 ?????? 1996) ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? cyber24.com. [181] [182] ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??????. [183] ?? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?? 23 ????? / ????? ?????? 1997 ???? 70 ???? ?? ???????. [184]

?????? ????? [ ??? ]

??? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? (Archie search engine) ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? 1990 ????? ?? ??? 1991 ?? ??? WAIS ?Gopher ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????. ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? 2006? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????.

?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ??? 1994 ??? ???????? (WebCrawler) ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? 1993 ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? 1990s ???? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ????! (????? ??? 1994) ?????????? (????? ??? 1995) ???? ????? ?? ??? ???????. ?????? ?? / ????? 2001 ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? (????? ??? 1998) ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????.

???? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ????? 2000s? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ????. ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? 1996? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????. ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????. ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????. ??????? ?? ??? 2006 ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? (≪???? ?????? ?????≫ ?? ≪????? ?????? ?????≫) ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????. ??? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????????. [185]

?? 3 ????? 2009 ????? ?????????? ???? ????? ?????? Bing. [186] ????? ?????? ????????? ?????! ! ???? ???? ???? Bing ??? ???? ????? ?? ????! . [187]

?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

???????? ???????: ?????? ??????? ? Peer-to-peer file sharing ? Timeline of file sharing

??? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????????? (1978)? ?????? (1980)? ??????? (1981)? ?????? ??????. ?? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ( FTP ) ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? 1985 ??? ???? ??? ????????? ?????. [188] ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? (WAIS) ?? ??? 1991 ? Gopher ?? ??? 1991? Archie ?? ??? 1991? Veronica ?? ??? 1992? Jughead ?? ??? 1993 ?????? ????? ???????? (IRC) ?? ??? 1988 ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ( ???? ???????? ?????? ) ?? ??? 1991 ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????????.

?? ??? 1999 ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???????. [189] ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? eDonkey2000 ??????? ?? ??? 2000 ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ??? 2001 ????? ?? ??? 2003. [190]

?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????????? ????????. [191] ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? 2001 ? eDonkey2000 ?? ??? 2005 ????? ?? ??? 2006 ???????? ?? ??? 2010 ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????. [192] [193] ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? 2003? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? 2009 ? 2010 ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????. [194] ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????. [195] [196]

????? ????? ??? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ????? ????????

???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????. ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????. ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????. ??? ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????.

?????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ???? 2000? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? 5048.62 ?? 10 ???? [197] (5.132.52 ???? ?????) ?? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ???. ?????? ??? 2001? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ????. ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????. ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??????????.

.

??????? ???????? ????????? [ ??? ]

???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ????? 9000 ??????????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? 1996 ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? i-mode? ?? ??? 1999 [198] ? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????. ?? ??? 2001? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? (???? ???? ???? ????) ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??????. ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????? ????????? ????????? (WAP). ???? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ???. ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????????. [199] ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ????. ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? 20 ? 30 ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? [200] ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??? 2008? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ???????. ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? 10 ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????????. [201]

?????? ????? [ ??? ]

?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ( HTML ) ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ??? ????? ????. ?? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ≪???????≫ ?????. ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??? 1993 ???????? ? 1994 Netscape [86] ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? 1990s? ??? ??? ??? HTML 4 ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? (( ????? )).

??? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?????????. [202] ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ????????.

≪"?? ???? ARPANET ????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? -BBN Technologies - ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? NSFNET ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ... ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???????. "≫ ?  Doug Gale (2007) [203]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

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