????? ????????

????? ???????? , ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????????, ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ?? . ????? ??????????? ????? ???????? ????? ???????: ???? ?????????? , ???????? ?????????? . ^[1] ???? ?????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???????, ???? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????. ????????, ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ????????. ???????? ??????????, ????????? ???? ???????, ?????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ????????????. ????????, ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????????, ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?? ????????.

????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????????????. ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????????? ????????? ???? 550,000 ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? (ULCCs) ?? (DWT) . ?????????? ????? ???????? ?????? 2,000,000,000 metric tons (2.2 × 10 ⁹ short tons) ?????? ??????????. ^[2] ????????? ????? ????????????? ???????, ^[3] ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? 1 US gallon (3.8 L) ????? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? 1 US gallon (3.8 L) .

?????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ???? ???????. ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ????, ????? ???? ????? ???? ????????. ?????????? ??????-?????-????? ???????????, ????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????? ??? ??????????. ????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?????????, ???? ????? ????????? ???????????. ???????, ??? ??????? ????????, ????????? ????????? ????? ??????.

?????? [ ?????? ]

????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????????. ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????????????? ????????????????, ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? 1850 ?? ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ????????. ^[4] 1850 ? ??????????, ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????????. ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????????????, ????? ????????? ????? ???? ???? ????????? ????????. ^[5]

1860 ???, ?????????????? ????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????????? ??????, ?????????????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ????????. ^[6] ?????????????? ??????? 40-US-gallon (150 L)?? ????? ????????? ??????-????? ??????, ??????????? ???? ??????????????? ????? ????????. ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????. ????? ????? ?????: ???? ????? 64 pounds (29 kg), ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? 20% ???????????? ??????? ??????. ^[7] ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ?????????, ???????? ???? ?????, ???? ????? ?????, ??? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????????????????. ????? ???????? ????: ????????, ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????????, ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ????? ???????.

1863 ??, ????????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????????????. ^[8] ?????? 1873 ?? ????? ?????-??????? ???????, ?????????? (?????????????) ??? ??????? ??????????????, ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????????. ^[4] ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????, ???????? ????????? ? ????? ??????????. ^[5] 1871 ??????, ?????????????? ????? ?????????? ? ???? ??????? ???? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?????????, ????????? ????????? ???????-??????? ??????? ????????????. ^[6]

?????? ????? ?????????? [ ?????? ]

?????? ????? ???????? 1877 ????? 1885 ?????? ????????? ?????????. ^[9] 1876 ??, ????????? ?????? ??????? ????????, ??????? ??????, ???????????????? ?????? ?????????? (???????? ?????? ???? ???????) ?? ???????????. ???, 19 ? ??????? ???????, ????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????????.

?????? [ ?????? ]

↑ Hayler and Keever, 2003:14-2.
↑ UNCTAD 2006, p. 4.
↑ Huber, 2001: 211.
↑ ^4.0 ^4.1 Woodman, 1975, p. 175.
↑ ^5.0 ^5.1 Woodman, 1975, p. 176.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Chisholm, 19:320.
↑ Tolf, 1976, p. 54.
↑ Chisholm, 24:881.
↑ Vassiliou, MS (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry . Scarecrow Press . Retrieved 2013-02-07 .

[hay2-1] Hayler and Keever, 2003:14-2.

[unctad4-2] UNCTAD 2006, p. 4.

[hub211-3] Huber, 2001: 211.

[woodman175-4] 4.0 ^4.1 Woodman, 1975, p. 175.

[woodman176-5] 5.0 ^5.1 Woodman, 1975, p. 176.

[ebpetro320-6] 6.0 ^6.1 Chisholm, 19:320.

[to54-7] Tolf, 1976, p. 54.

[ebship881-8] Chisholm, 24:881.

[vassiliou493-9] Vassiliou, MS (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry . Scarecrow Press . Retrieved 2013-02-07 .

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