Founder of Swaminarayan Sampradaya
Swaminarayan
(
IAST
:
Sv?m?n?r?ya?a
; 3 April 1781 ? 1 June 1830), also known as
Sahajanand Swami
, was a
yogi
and
ascetic
believed by followers to be a manifestation of
Krishna
or the highest
manifestation
of
Purushottama
,
[6]
around whom the
Swaminarayan Sampradaya
developed.
In 1800, he was initiated into the
Uddhava
sampradaya
by his guru,
Swami Ramanand
, and was given the name Sahajanand Swami. Despite opposition, in 1802, Ramanand handed over the leadership of the Uddhava Sampradaya to him before his death.
According to the Swaminarayan tradition, Sahajanand Swami became known as Swaminarayan, and the Uddhava Sampradaya became known as the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, after a gathering in which he taught the
Swaminarayan Mantra
to his followers.
He emphasized "moral, personal, and social betterment,"
and
ahimsa
,
. He is also remembered within the sect for undertaking reforms for women
and the poor,
and performing large scale non-violent
yajnas
(fire sacrifices).
During his lifetime, Swaminarayan
institutionalized
his charisma and beliefs in various ways.
He built six mandirs to facilitate devotional worship of God by his followers,
and encouraged the creation of a scriptural tradition,
including the
Shikshapatri
, which he wrote in 1826.
In 1826, through a legal document titled the
Lekh
, Swaminarayan created two dioceses, the
Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi (Vadtal Gadi)
and
Nar Narayan Dev Gadi (Ahmedabad Gadi)
, with a hereditary leadership of
acharyas
and their wives from his own extended family,
[web 1]
who were authorized to install statues of deities in temples and to initiate ascetics.
Biography
Childhood as Ghanshyam
Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 (
Chaitra
Sud 9,
Samvat
1837) in
Chhapaiya
, a village near
Ayodhya
in present-day Indian state of
Uttar Pradesh
.
Born into the
Brahmin
or
priestly caste
of Sarvariya, Swaminarayan was named
Ghanshyam Pande
by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati Pande (mother, also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi).
The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of
Rama Navami
, celebrating the birth of
Rama
. The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of the
waxing moon
in the
month
of
Chaitra
(March?April), is celebrated as both Rama Navami and
Swaminarayan Jayanti
by Swaminarayan followers. This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers.
[20]
Swaminarayan had an elder brother, Rampratap Pande, and a younger brother, Ichcharam Pande.
[21]
He is said to have mastered the
scriptures
, including the
Vedas
, the
Upanishads
, the
Puranas
, the
Ramayana
, and the
Mahabharata
by the age of seven.
[22]
Travels as Nilkanth Varni
After the death of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 (Ashadh Sud 10, Samvat 1849) at the age of 11.
[23]
He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey. Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of
Nepal
in search of an
ashram
, or hermitage, that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of
Vedanta
,
Samkhya
,
Yoga
, and
Pancaratra
.
[24]
To find such an ashram, Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:
[25]
While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered
Astanga yoga
(eightfold yoga) in a span of nine months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi.
[26]
In Nepal, it is said that he met King
Rana Bahadur Shah
and cured him of his stomach illness. As a result, the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned.
[27]
Nilkanth Varni visited the
Jagannath Temple
in
Puri
as well as temples in
Badrinath
,
Rameswaram
,
Nashik
,
Dwarka
, and
Pandharpur
.
[23]
In 1799, after a seven-year journey, Nilkanth's travels as a
yogi
eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the
Junagadh district
of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni met
Muktanand Swami
, a senior disciple of
Ramanand Swami
. Muktanand Swami, who was 22 years older than Nilkanth, answered the five questions to Nilkanth's satisfaction.
[28]
Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami, whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat.
[29]
He later claimed in the
Vachnamrut
that during this period, he took up a severe penance to eliminate his mother's flesh and blood from his body so that the sign of his physical attachment to family, was completely removed.
[24]
Leadership as Sahajanand Swami
According to the sect, Nilkanth's understanding of the
metaphysical
and
epistemological
concepts of the
pancha-tattvas
(five eternal elements), together with his mental and physical discipline, inspired senior swamis of Ramanand Swami.
[30]
Nilkanth Varni received
sannyasa
initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800, and with it was granted the names
Sahajanand Swami
and
Narayan Muni
to signify his new status.
[31]
At the age of 21, Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the
Uddhava Sampradaya
[31]
by
Ramanand Swami
, prior to his death. The Uddhava Sampradaya henceforth came to be known as the
Swaminarayan Sampradaya
.
[32]
According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity,
Krishna
or Narayana.
[33]
Krishna was considered by him his own
ishtadevata
. In contrast with the
Vaishnava
sect known as the
Radha-vallabha
Sampradaya
,
[34]
he had a more puritanical approach, rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery. While being a worshipper of Krishna, Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in
Krishnology
in favor of worship in the mood of majesty, alike to earlier Vaishnava teachers,
Ramanuja
and
Yamunacharya
.
[35]
Manifestation belief
According to Swaminarayan-tradition, Sahajanand Swami was later known as
Swaminarayan
after the
mantra
he taught at a gathering, in Faneni, a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami.
[36]
He gave his followers a new mantra, known as the
Swaminarayan mantra
, to repeat in their rituals:
Swaminarayan
.
[31]
When chanting this mantra, some devotees went into
samadhi
,
[37]
[note 1]
and claimed that they could see their personal gods.
[26]
[38]
[39]
As early as 1804, Swaminarayan, who was reported to have performed miracles, was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple and paramahamsa,
Nishkulanand Swami
.
[31]
[40]
[note 2]
This work, the
Yama Danda
, was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect.
[42]
Swaminarayan himself is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God in a meeting with
Reginald Heber
, the Lord
Bishop
of
Calcutta
, in 1825.
[43]
: 81
Some of Swaminarayan's followers believe he was an incarnation of
Krishna
.
[41]
The images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna have coincided in the liturgy of the sect. The story of the birth of Swaminarayan parallels that of Krishna's birth from the scripture
Bhagavata Purana
.
[44]
Most of his followers believe that Swaminarayan is the complete manifestation of Narayana or
Purushottama
Narayana - the Supreme Being and superior to other avatars.
[31]
The belief of many followers that their founder was the incarnation of the Supreme God has also drawn criticism.
[45]
According to Professor Raymond B. Williams, Swaminarayan was criticized because he received large gifts from his followers and dressed and traveled as a
Maharaja
even though he had taken the vows of renunciation of the world. Swaminarayan responded that he accepts gifts for the emancipation of his followers.
[46]
Teaching
Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and
dharma
to lead a pious life. Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation, Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong
Gujarati
roots.
[47]
He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples.
[48]
Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat, alcohol or drugs, adultery, suicide, animal sacrifices, criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and
tantric
rituals.
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes.
[53]
Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple. He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation: dharma,
bhakti
(devotion),
gnana
(knowledge) and
vairagya
(detachment).
Doctrinally, Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher
Ramanuja
and was critical of
Adi Shankara
's concept of
Advaita
, or monistic
non-dualism
. Swaminarayan's
ontology
maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form.
[54]
Swaminarayan's philosophy asserts that Parabrahman and Aksharabrahman are two distinct eternal realities.
Relations with other religions and the British Government
Swaminarayan strived to maintain good relationships with people of other religions, sometimes meeting prominent leaders. His followers cut across religious boundaries, including people of
Muslim
and
Parsi
backgrounds.
[26]
[56]
Swaminarayan's personal attendants included
Khoja
Muslims.
[26]
In
Kathiawad
, many Muslims wore
kanthi
necklaces given by Swaminarayan.
[57]
He also had a meeting with
Reginald Heber
, Lord
Bishop
of
Calcutta
and a leader of
Christians
in India at the time.
[43]
Bishop Heber mentions in his account of the meeting that about two hundred disciples of Swaminarayan accompanied him as his bodyguards mounted on horses and carrying
Matchlocks
and swords. Bishop Heber himself had about a hundred horse guards accompanying him (fifty horses and fifty muskets) and mentioned that it was humiliating for him to see two religious leaders meeting at the head of two small armies, his being the smaller contingent.
[58]
[59]
As a result of the meeting, both leaders gained mutual respect for one another.
[59]
Swaminarayan enjoyed a good relationship with the government of the ruling
East India Company
. The first temple he built, in
Ahmedabad
, was built on 5,000 acres (20 km
2
) of land given by the company government. The company officers gave it a 101 gun salute when it was opened.
[60]
[61]
It was in an 1825 meeting with Reginald Heber that Swaminarayan is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of Krishna.
[43]
In 1830, Swaminarayan had a meeting with
Sir John Malcolm
,
Governor of Bombay
(1827 to 1830). According to Malcolm, Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a lawless region.
[62]
During the meeting with Malcolm, Swaminarayan gave him a copy of the Shikshapatri. This copy of the Shikshapatri is currently housed at the
Bodleian Library
at
University of Oxford
.
[63]
Temples and ascetics
Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several
Hindu temples
and he had built six huge temples by himself and installed the idols of various deities such as
Radha Krishna
,
Nara-Narayana
,
Laksmi Narayana
,
Gopinath
,
Radha Ramana
, and
Madanamohana
. The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna.
[43]
: 81
[64]
Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals.
[65]
[66]
Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers.
[67]
He conducted the festivals of
Vasant Panchami
,
Holi
, and
Janmashtami
with organization of the traditional folk dance
raas
.
[26]
The
first temple
Swaminarayan constructed was in
Ahmedabad
in 1822, with the land for construction given by the Company Government.
[68]
[60]
Following a request of devotees from
Bhuj
, Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand to build a
temple
there. Construction commenced in 1822, and the temple was built within a year.
[68]
A
temple
in
Vadtal
followed in 1824,
[68]
a
temple
in
Dholera
in 1826,
[68]
a
temple
in
Junagadh
in 1828
[68]
and a
temple
in
Gadhada
, also in 1828.
[68]
By the time of his death, Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in
Muli
,
Dholka
and
Jetalpur
.
[61]
From early on, ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan sect. They contribute towards growth and development of the movement, encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life.
[69]
Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as
paramahamsas
in a single night. Paramahamsa is a title of honour sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramahamsas were the highest order of
sannyasi
in the sect.
[70]
Prominent paramahamsas included
Muktanand Swami
,
Gopalanand Swami
,
Brahmanand Swami
,
Gunatitanand Swami
,
Premanand Swami
,
Nishkulanand Swami
, and
Nityanand Swami
.
[71]
Ahmedabad and Vadtal Gadi
Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of
acharyas
or preceptors, as his successors.
[72]
He established two
gadis
(seats of leadership). One seat was established at Ahmedabad (
Nar Narayan Dev Gadi
) and the other one at Vadtal (
Laxmi Narayan Dev Gadi
) on 21 November 1825. Swaminarayan appointed an acharya to each of these
gadis
to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. These acharyas came from his immediate family after sending representatives to search them out in
Uttar Pradesh
.
[73]
He formally adopted a son each from his two brothers and appointed them to the office of acharya.
Ayodhyaprasad
, the son of Swaminarayan's elder brother Rampratap, and
Raghuvira
, the son of his younger brother Ichcharam, were appointed
acharyas
of the
Ahmedabad
Gadi and the
Vadtal
Gadi respectively.
[74]
Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that
acharyas
would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family.
[75]
The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called
Desh Vibhag Lekh
.
[25]
Swaminarayan stated to all the devotees and saints to obey both the Acharyas and
Gopalanand Swami
who was considered as the main pillar and chief ascetic
[76]
for the sampradaya.
[77]
The current acharya of the Ahmedabad Gadi is
Koshalendraprasad Pande
and Ajendraprasad Pande, of the Vadtal Gadi.
[78]
[79]
[80]
Death
In 1830, Swaminarayan gathered his followers and announced his departure. He later died on 1 June 1830 (Jeth sud 10, Samvat 1886),
[61]
and it is believed by followers that, at the time of his death, Swaminarayan left Earth for
Akshardham
, his abode.
[26]
[81]
He was cremated according to Hindu rites at Lakshmi Wadi in
Gadhada
.
[82]
Social views
Women
Swaminarayan insisted that education was the inherent right of all people, including women, despite considerable criticism from those in his own contemporary society who "loathed the uplift of lower
caste
women".
[83]
At that time, influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase during Swaminarayan's time, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects.
[84]
Members of the sect consider Swaminarayan a pioneer of education of females in India.
[85]
[86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
According to the author Raymond Brady Williams, "Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women's rights without personal involvement with women".
[90]
To counter the practice of
sati
(self-immolation by a widow on her husband's funeral pyre), Swaminarayan argued that, as human life was given by God, it could be taken only by God, and that
sati
had no Vedic sanction. He went to the extent to call
sati
nothing but suicide. Swaminarayan offered parents help with
dowry
expenses to discourage female infanticide, calling infanticide a sin.
[85]
[86]
For calling a halt to these prevailing practices, Swaminarayan's "contemporaries naturally saw in him a pioneer of a reformed and purified Hinduism, and Swaminarayan Hinduism an 'ingrazi dharma' or British religion."
[84]
Professor David Harman observed that Swaminarayan "criticized the popular
shakta
cults and '
gosai
' and '
nath
' ascetics for the contemptuous and instrumental way in which they viewed and treated women. These cults were often responsible for gross sexual abuse of women."
[91]
Hardiman added that Swaminarayan's view towards women was not in line with this type of misogyny and was rooted in his desire to prevent ill-treatment of women along with promoting celibacy for ascetics.
[91]
Swaminarayan "forbade all sadhus and sadhvis (that is, male and female ascetics) of his sect from having any contact whatsoever with members of the opposite sex."
[91]
This strict precept was one he likely internalized "after travelling as an ascetic throughout India [when] he was reported to vomit if approached by even the shadow of a woman".
[92]
To help his male ascetic followers maintain their vow of celibacy, Swaminarayan taught “the woman who attracts attention is made up of bones, blood vessels, spittle, blood, mucus and feces; she is simply a collection of these things, and there is nothing to be attractive.
[91]
[93]
Members of the faith are defensive of the fact that some practices seem to restrict women and make gender equality in leadership impossible.
[94]
They are only permitted to enter special sections of the temple reserved for women or have to go to separate women's temples.
[91]
As with practices of
niddah
in Orthodox Judaism, concepts of pollution associated with the
menstrual cycle
lead to the exclusion of women from the temples and daily worship during the affected time.
[95]
Swaminarayan also directed male devotees not to listen to religious discourses given by women.
[87]
In the case of widows, Swaminarayan directed those who could not follow the path of chastity to remarry. For those who could, he lay down strict rules which included them being under the control of male members of the family. This may seem regressive, however, it gave them "a respected and secure place in the social order" of the time.
[96]
Swaminarayan restricted widows "to live always under the control of male members of their family and prohibited them from receiving instruction in any science from any man excepting their nearest relations."
[87]
Caste system and the poor
After assuming the leadership of the sampradaya, Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water.
[97]
He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor. Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought.
[98]
Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the
caste system
, allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him.
[53]
A political officer in Gujarat,
Mr. Williamson
reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had "destroyed the yoke of caste."
[90]
He instructed his paramahamsas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants. Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status.
[49]
[87]
Swaminarayan would eat along with the lower Rajput and Khati castes but not any lower.
[99]
He allowed dalits and lower caste people to visit places of worship .
[100]
However,
Dalits
- those outside of the caste system - were formally excluded from Swaminarayan temples.
[101]
Members of a lower caste are prohibited from wearing a full sect mark (tilak chandlo) on their forehead.
[102]
Even now, however, for the vast majority of Gujarat's lower-caste, Untouchable and tribal population, the sect is out of bounds.
[103]
Reginald Heber
, the Lord Bishop of Calcutta, noted that disciples of Swaminarayan cut across all castes, and even included Muslims. He writes "they all pray to one God with no difference of castes. They live as if they were brothers."
[104]
Furthermore, in a meeting with Swaminarayan, he noted that "[Swaminarayan] did not regard the subject as of much importance, but that he wished not to give offense (to ancient Hindu system); that people might eat separately or together in this world, but that above "oopur" pointing to heaven, those distinctions would cease."
[104]
Swaminarayan worked thus to dispel the myth that
moksha
(salvation) was not attainable by everyone.
[105]
He taught that the soul is neither male nor female, nor yoked to any specific caste.
[49]
[106]
Animal sacrifices and yajnas
Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices.
[107]
To solve this problem, Swaminarayan conducted several large-scale yajnas involving priests from
Varanasi
. Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating
ahimsa
through several such large-scale yajnas. Swaminarayan stressed
lacto vegetarianism
among his followers and forbade meat consumption, codifying the conduct in the
Shikshapatri
.
[53]
[87]
[108]
[109]
Scriptures
Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts.
[47]
He held the
Bhagavata Purana
in high authority.
[110]
However, there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as
shastras
or scriptures within the Swaminarayan sect. Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the
Shikshapatri
and the
Vachanamrut
. Other important works and scriptures include the
Satsangi Jeevan
, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, the
Muktanand Kavya
, the
Nishkulanand Kavya
and the
Bhakta Chintamani
.
[111]
Shikshapatri
Swaminarayan wrote the
Shikshapatri
on 11 February 1826.
[112]
While the original
Sanskrit
manuscript is not available, it was translated into
Gujarati
by
Nityanand Swami
under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect.
[53]
[113]
The Gazetteer of the
Bombay Presidency
summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow.
[114]
A commentary on the practice and understanding of
dharma
, it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses, outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well-disciplined and moral life.
[111]
The oldest copy of this text is preserved at the
Bodleian Library
of
Oxford University
and it is one of the very few presented by Sahajanand Swami himself.
Acharya Tejendraprasad
of Ahmedabad has indicated in a letter that he is not aware of any copy from the hand of Sahajanand older than this text.
[113]
Swaminarayan in various places of Shikshapatri describes Krishna as the greatest entity.
[115]
[116]
Vachanamrut
The Vachanamrut (IAST:
Vacan?m?ta,
lit. "immortalising ambrosia in the form of words") is a sacred Hindu text consisting of 273 religious discourses delivered by Swaminarayan from 1819 to 1829 CE and is considered the principal theological text within the
Swaminarayan Sampradaya
.
[117]
: 6
Compiled by four of his senior disciples, Swaminarayan edited and approved the scripture. As followers believe Swaminarayan to be Parabrahman, or God, the Vachanamrut is considered a direct revelation from God and thus the most precise interpretation of the
Upanishads
,
Bhagavad Gita
, and other important Hindu scriptures.
[117]
: 13?14, 45
[118]
: 173
This scripture is read by followers regularly and discourses are conducted daily in Swaminarayan temples around the world.
[119]
: 21?27
Satsangi Jeevan
Satsangi Jeevan is the authorised biography of Swaminarayan.
[117]
The book contains information on the life and teachings of Swaminarayan.
[120]
It is written by Shatanand Swami and completed in Vikram Samvat 1885.
[117]
Swaminarayan decided to make Gadhada his permanent residence on the insistence of Dada Khachar and his sisters.
[121]
Swaminarayan instructed Shatanand Swami to write a book on his life and pastimes.
[118]
To enable Shatanand Swami to write from His childhood, Swaminarayan had blessed Shatanand Swami with Sanjay Drishti - special power to see the entire past right from His childhood.
[118]
Once written by Shatanand Swami, this book was verified and authenticated by Swaminarayan. He was much pleased to read the book. Swaminarayan then asked his disciples to do Katha of Satsangi Jeevan.
[118]
Legacy
Schisms
Decades after his death, several divisions occurred with different understandings of succession. This included the establishment of
Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha
(BAPS), the founder of which left the Vadtal Gadi in 1905, and
Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan
, the founder of which left the Ahmedabad Gadi in the 1940s. The followers of BAPS hold
Gunatitanand Swami
as the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan, asserting that on several occasions Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was
Aksharbrahm
manifest. Followers of BAPS believe that the acharyas were given administrative leadership of the sect while Gunatitanand Swami was given spiritual leadership by Swaminarayan.
[122]
The current spiritual and administrative leader of BAPS is
Mahant Swami Maharaj
. The followers of the Maninagar Swaminarayan Gadi Sansthan hold
Gopalanand Swami
as the successor to Swaminarayan.
[123]
[124]
The current leader of this sect is Purushottampriyadasji Maharaj.
[125]
Growth
According to the biographer Raymond Williams, when Swaminarayan died, he had a following of 1.8 million people. In 2001, Swaminarayan centres existed on four continents, and the congregation was recorded to be five million, the majority in the homeland of Gujarat.
[126]
[127]
[128]
The newspaper
Indian Express
estimated members of the Swaminarayan sect of Hinduism to number over 20 million (2 crore) worldwide in 2007.
[129]
Reception
The manifestation belief and Swaminarayan's teachings were criticized by Hindu reformist leader
Dayananda Saraswati
(1824?1883). He questioned the acceptance of Swaminarayan as the Supreme Being and was disapproving towards the idea that visions of Swaminarayan could form a path to attaining perfection. Accused of deviating from the
Vedas
, his followers were criticised for the illegal collection of wealth and the "practice of frauds and tricks."
[130]
In the views of Dayananda, published as early as 1875, it was a "historical fact" that Swaminarayan decorated himself as Narayana in order to gain followers.
[131]
In 1918,
Mahatma Gandhi
in the letter to his nephew, expressed that Swaminarayan's values didn't align perfectly with his interpretation of
Vaishnavism
and the love taught by Swaminarayana was all about sentimentalism. According to Gandhi, Swaminarayan had not grasped the essence of non-violence.
[40]
[100]
In 1924, Gandhi applauded efforts of Swaminaryan and added that "what was accomplished in Gujarat by one person, Sahajanand [Swaminarayan], could not be accomplished by the power of the State".
[132]
See also
Notes
- ^
The word
samadhi
has different meanings in Hinduism. It may refer to a form
yogic
deep meditation. As a cause of death, it refers to the act of consciously and intentionally
leaving one's body
at the time of death.
[32]
- ^
In his discourses recorded in the Vachanamrut, Swaminarayan mentions that humans would not be able to withstand meeting god in his divine form, hence God takes human form (simultaneously living in his abode) so people can approach, understand and love him in the form of an
Avatar
.
[41]
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