1291?1798 confederation of Swiss cantons
Swiss Confederacy
|
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|
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|
Capital
| None
[4]
|
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Official languages
| German
[5]
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Common languages
| [
citation needed
]
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Religion
| Roman Catholic
Continental Reformed
|
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Demonym(s)
| Swiss
|
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Government
| Confederation
|
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Legislature
| Federal Diet
|
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History
|
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|
| 15 July 1291
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| 1291
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| 1356
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| 13?14 September 1515
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| 1529 and 1531
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| 15 May/24 October 1648
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| January?June 1653
|
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| 5 March 1798
|
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|
Currency
| About 75 different local currencies, including
Basel thaler
,
Berne thaler
,
Fribourg gulden
,
Geneva thaler
,
Geneva genevoise
,
Luzern gulden
,
Neuchatel gulden
,
St. Gallen thaler
,
Schwyz gulden
,
Solothurn thaler
,
Valais thaler
,
Zurich thaler
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|
Today part of
| Switzerland
|
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The
Old Swiss Confederacy
, also known as
Switzerland
or the
Swiss Confederacy
,
[6]
was a loose
confederation
of independent small states (
cantons
, German
Orte
or
Stande
[7]
), initially within the
Holy Roman Empire
. It is the precursor of the modern state of
Switzerland
.
It formed during the 13th century, from a
nucleus
in what is now
Central Switzerland
,
expanding
to include the cities of
Zurich
and
Bern
by the middle of the century. This formed a rare union of rural and urban
communes
, all of which enjoyed
imperial immediacy
in the Holy Roman Empire.
This confederation of eight cantons (
Acht Orte
) was politically and militarily successful for more than a century, culminating in the
Burgundy Wars
of the 1470s which established it as a power in the complicated political landscape dominated by
France
and the
Habsburgs
. Its success resulted in the addition of more confederates, increasing the number of cantons to thirteen (
Dreizehn Orte
) by 1513. The confederacy pledged
neutrality
in 1647 (under the threat of the
Thirty Years' War
), although many Swiss served privately as
mercenaries
in the
Italian Wars
and during the
early modern
period.
After the
Swabian War
of 1499 the confederacy was a
de facto
independent state throughout the
early modern period
, although still nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1648 when the
Treaty of Westphalia
ended the
Thirty Years' War
. The Swiss Reformation divided the confederates into Reformed and Catholic parties, resulting in internal conflict from the 16th to the 18th centuries; as a result, the federal diet (
Tagsatzung
) was often paralysed by hostility between the factions. The Swiss Confederacy fell to invasion by the
French Revolutionary Army
in 1798, after which it became the short-lived
Helvetic Republic
.
Name
[
edit
]
The adjective "old" was introduced after the
Napoleonic era
with
Ancien Regime
,
retronyms
distinguishing the pre-Napoleonic from the
restored
confederation. During its existence the confederacy was known as
Eidgenossenschaft
or
Eydtgnoschafft
("oath fellowship"), in reference to treaties among cantons; this term was first used in the 1370
Pfaffenbrief
. Territories of the confederacy came to be known collectively as
Schweiz
or
Schweizerland
(
Schwytzerland
in contemporary spelling), with the English
Switzerland
beginning during the mid-16th century. From that time the Confederacy was seen as a single state, also known as the Swiss Republic (
Republic der Schweitzer
,
Republique des Suisses
and
Republica Helvetiorum
by
Josias Simmler
in 1576) after the fashion of calling individual urban cantons
republics
(such as the Republics of
Zurich
,
Berne
and
Basel
).
[
citation needed
]
History
[
edit
]
Foundation
[
edit
]
The nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy was an alliance among the valley communities of the
central Alps
to facilitate management of common interests (such as trade) and ensure peace along trade routes through the mountains. Previously, the communities, also known collectively as the "Forest States",
[8]
had been granted
imperial immediacy
and autonomy during the reign of the
Hohenstaufens
. The region was endowed with these privileges because the
Gotthard Pass
went through the area. This pass was important in the Hohenstaufen struggle against the Italian
Lombard League
.
Due to the fragmentation of
Swabia
following the collapse of the Hohenstaufens, many nations began to compete for land. The
Habsburgs
in particular were a major threat to the Swiss states.
King Rudolf I
added large amounts of territory in Switzerland and Swabia to his
domain
, and
sieged down Bern
in 1289 to enforce imperial taxes. This aggression from the Habsburgs would likely be a major factor in the creation of the Swiss Confederacy.
[9]
The foundation of the Confederacy is marked by the
Rutlischwur
(dated to 1307 by
Aegidius Tschudi
) or the 1315
Pact of Brunnen
. Since 1889, the
Federal Charter of 1291
among the
rural communes
of
Uri
,
Schwyz
, and
Unterwalden
has been considered the founding document of the confederacy.
[10]
The early Swiss Confederacy was simply a defensive pact, but over time the states grew closer and closer. Following a victory against the Habsburgs in 1315, the members of the Confederacy vowed not to form alliances with outside states without consent of the rest of the Confederacy. They also agreed to resolve all disputes peacefully and to support one another in both external and internal affairs. At this point however, the Swiss were still subordinate to the Empire, and they acknowledged the authority of the Holy Roman Empire.
[8]
Expansion
[
edit
]
The initial pact was augmented by pacts with the cities of
Lucerne
,
Zurich
, and
Bern
. This union of rural and urban communes, which enjoyed the status of
imperial immediacy
within the
Holy Roman Empire
, was engendered by pressure from
Habsburg
dukes and kings who had ruled much of the land. Bern in particular had fought against local nobles, including the Habsburgs, on several occasions, and as such was eager to join the Confederacy. In several battles with Habsburg armies, the Swiss were victorious; they conquered the rural areas of
Glarus
and
Zug
, which became members of the confederacy.
[10]
This expansion greatly changed the social climate in the Confederacy. In the original 3 cantons, citizens all held equal rights, but in the newly acquired urban cities, power was in the hands of the wealthy
Burgomeisters
. This led into a shift away from the traditional Swiss egalitarianism enjoyed by citizens in the original Confederacy.
[8]
From 1353 to 1481, the federation of eight
cantons
?known in German as the
Acht Orte
(Eight Cantons)?consolidated its position. The members (especially the cities) enlarged their territory at the expense of local counts?primarily by buying
judicial rights
, but sometimes by force. The
Eidgenossenschaft
, as a whole, expanded through military conquest: the
Aargau
was conquered in 1415 and the
Thurgau
in 1460. In both cases, the Swiss profited from weakness in the Habsburg dukes. In the south, Uri led a military territorial expansion that (after many setbacks) would by 1515 lead to the conquest of the
Ticino
.None of these territories became members of the confederacy; they had the status of
condominiums
(regions administered by several cantons).
[8]
The reason for these Swiss victories was their innovative military tactics. Their perfection of the
Pike Square
made them excellent defensive warriors in their home mountain terrain, and they became highly sought after
mercenaries
throughout Europe (ex
Swiss Guard
).
At this time, the eight cantons gradually increased their influence on neighbouring cities and regions through additional alliances. Individual cantons concluded pacts with
Fribourg
,
Appenzell
,
Schaffhausen
, the abbot and the city of
St. Gallen
,
Biel
,
Rottweil
, Mulhouse and others. These allies (known as the
Zugewandte Orte
) became closely associated with the confederacy, but were not accepted as full members. They would be known as
Swiss Associates
.
The
Burgundian Wars
prompted a further enlargement of the confederacy; Fribourg and
Solothurn
were accepted in 1481. By defeating the
Duchy of Burgundy
in this war, the Confederacy managed to stop the growing Burgundian threat. In the
Swabian War
against Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian I
, the Swiss were victorious and exempted from imperial legislation. The associated cities of
Basel
and
Schaffhausen
joined the confederacy as a result of that conflict, and Appenzell followed suit in 1513 as the thirteenth member. The federation of thirteen cantons (
Dreizehn Orte
) constituted the Old Swiss Confederacy until its demise in 1798.
The expansion of the confederacy was stopped by the Swiss defeat in the 1515
Battle of Marignano
. Only Bern and Fribourg were still able to conquer the
Vaud
in 1536; the latter primarily became part of the
canton of Bern
, with a small portion under the jurisdiction of Fribourg.
Reformation
[
edit
]
The
Reformation in Switzerland
led to doctrinal division amongst the cantons.
[10]
Zurich, Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen and associates Biel, Mulhouse, Neuchatel, Geneva and the city of St. Gallen became
Protestant
; other members of the confederation and the
Valais
remained
Catholic
. In Glarus, Appenzell, in the
Grisons
and in most condominiums both religions coexisted; Appenzell split in 1597 into a Catholic
Appenzell Innerrhoden
and a Protestant
Appenzell Ausserrhoden
.
The division led to civil war (the
Wars of Kappel
) and separate alliances with foreign powers by the Catholic and Protestant factions, but the confederacy as a whole continued to exist. A common foreign policy was blocked, however, by the impasse. During the
Thirty Years' War
, religious disagreements among the cantons kept the confederacy neutral and spared it from belligerents. At the
Peace of Westphalia
, the Swiss delegation was granted formal recognition of the confederacy as a state independent of the Holy Roman Empire.
Early modern period
[
edit
]
Growing social differences and an increasing
absolutism
in the city cantons during the Ancien Regime led to local
popular revolts
. An uprising during the post-war depression after the Thirty Years' War escalated to the
Swiss peasant war of 1653
in Lucerne, Bern, Basel, Solothurn and the Aargau. The revolt was put down swiftly by force and with the help of many cantons.
Religious differences were accentuated by a growing economic discrepancy. The Catholic, predominantly rural central-Swiss cantons were surrounded by Protestant cantons with increasingly commercial economies. The politically dominant cantons were Zurich and Bern (both Protestant), but the Catholic cantons were influential since the Second War of Kappel in 1531. A 1655 attempt (led by Zurich) to restructure the federation was blocked by Catholic opposition, which led to the
first battle of Villmergen
in 1656; the Catholic party won, cementing the
status quo
.
The problems remained unsolved, erupting again in 1712 with the
second battle of Villmergen
. This time the Protestant cantons won, dominating the confederation. True reform, however, was impossible; the individual interests of the thirteen members were too diverse, and the absolutist cantonal governments resisted all attempts at confederation-wide administration. Foreign policy remained fragmented.
Structure
[
edit
]
The
(Alte) Eidgenossenschaft
was initially united not by a single pact, but by overlapping pacts and bilateral treaties between members.
[11]
The parties generally agreed to preserve the peace, aid in military endeavours and arbitrate disputes. Slowly, the members began to see the confederation as a unifying entity. In the
Pfaffenbrief
, a treaty of 1370 among six of the eight members (Glarus and Bern did not participate) forbidding
feuds
and denying clerical courts jurisdiction over the confederacy, the cantons for the first time used the term
Eidgenossenschaft
. The first treaty uniting the eight members of the confederacy was the
Sempacherbrief
[
de
;
fr
]
of 1393, concluded after victories over the Habsburgs at
Sempach
in 1386 and
Nafels
in 1388, which forbade a member from unilaterally beginning a war without the consent of the other cantons. A federal
diet
, the
Tagsatzung
, developed during the 15th century.
[8]
Pacts and renewals (or modernizations) of earlier alliances reinforced the confederacy. The individual interests of the cantons clashed in the
Old Zurich War
(1436?1450), caused by territorial conflict among Zurich and the central Swiss cantons over the succession of the
Count of Toggenburg
. Although Zurich entered an alliance with the Habsburg dukes, it then rejoined the confederacy. The confederation had become so close a political alliance that it no longer tolerated separatist tendencies in its members.
[8]
The
Tagsatzung
was the confederation council, typically meeting several times a year. Each canton delegated two representatives (including the associate states, which had no vote). The canton where the delegates met initially chaired the gathering, but during the 16th century Zurich permanently assumed the chair (
Vorort
) and
Baden
became the seat. The
Tagsatzung
dealt with inter-cantonal affairs and was the court of last resort in disputes between member states, imposing sanctions on dissenting members. It also administered the condominiums; the
reeves
were delegated for two years, each time by a different canton.
[12]
A unifying treaty of the Old Swiss Confederacy was the
Stanser Verkommnis
of 1481. Conflicts between rural and urban cantons and disagreements over the bounty of the
Burgundian Wars
had led to skirmishes. The urban cantons of Bern, Zurich, and Luzern in particular wanted to keep a large share of the bounty. The city-states of Fribourg and Solothurn wanted to join the confederacy, but were mistrusted by the central Swiss rural cantons. The compromise by the
Tagsatzung
in the
Stanser Verkommnis
restored order and assuaged the rural cantons' complaints, with Fribourg and Solothurn accepted into the confederation.
[8]
While the treaty restricted freedom of assembly (many skirmishes arose from unauthorised expeditions by soldiers from the Burgundian Wars), it reinforced agreements amongst the cantons in the earlier
Sempacherbrief
and
Pfaffenbrief
.
The civil war during the Reformation ended in a stalemate. The Catholic cantons could block council decisions but, due to geographic and economic factors, could not prevail over the Protestant cantons. Both factions began to hold separate councils, still meeting at a common
Tagsatzung
(although the common council was deadlocked by disagreements between both factions until 1712, when the Protestant cantons gained power after their victory in the
second war of Villmergen
). The Catholic cantons were excluded from administering the condominiums in the Aargau, the Thurgau and the Rhine valley; in their place, Bern became co-sovereign of these regions.
List of territories
[
edit
]
Cantons
[
edit
]
The confederation expanded in several stages: first to the Eight Cantons (
Acht Orte
), then in 1481 to ten, in 1501 to twelve, and finally to thirteen cantons (
Dreizehn Orte
).
[13]
- Founding cantons (
Urkantone
):
- 14th century: expansion to the
Achtortige Eidgenossenschaft
following the battles of
Morgarten
and
Laupen
:
- Lucerne
, city canton, since 1332
- Zurich
, city canton, since 1351
- Glarus
, rural canton, since 1352
- Zug
, city canton, since 1352
- Bern
, city canton, since 1353; associate since 1323
- 15th century: expansion to the
Zehnortige Eidgenossenschaft
following the
Burgundian Wars
:
- Fribourg
, city canton, since 1481; associate since 1454
- Solothurn
, city canton, since 1481; associate since 1353
- 16th century: expansion to the
Dreizehnortige Eidgenossenschaft
following the
Swabian War
:
Associates
[
edit
]
Associates
(Zugewandte Orte)
were close allies of the Old Swiss Confederacy, connected to the union by alliance treaties with all or some of the individual members of the confederacy.
Closest associates
[
edit
]
Three of the associates were known as
Engere Zugewandte
:
- Biel
? 1344?82 treaties with Fribourg, Bern and Solothurn. Nominally, Biel was subject to the
Bishopric of Basel
.
- Imperial
Abbey of St. Gallen
? 1451 treaty with Schwyz, Lucerne, Zurich and Glarus, renewed in 1479 and 1490. The abbey was simultaneously a protectorate.
- Imperial City
of
St. Gallen
? 1454 treaty with Schwyz, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug and Bern.
Eternal associates
[
edit
]
Two federations were known as
Ewige Mitverbundete
:
- Sieben Zenden
, an independent federation in the
Valais
? Became a
Zugewandter Ort
in 1416 through an alliance with Uri, Unterwalden and Lucerne, followed by a treaty with Bern in 1446.
- Three Leagues
were independent federations on the territory of the
Grisons
and became an associates of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1497/98 through the events of the
Swabian War
. The Three Leagues together concluded an alliance pact with Bern in 1602.
- Grey League
, who had been allied with Glarus, Uri and Obwalden through pacts from 1400, 1407 and 1419, entered an alliance with seven of the old eight cantons (the
Acht Orte
without Bern) in 1497
- League of God's House
(
Gotteshausbund
) followed suit a year later.
- League of the Ten Jurisdictions
, the third of the leagues, entered an alliance with Zurich and Glarus in 1590.
Protestant associates
[
edit
]
There were two
Evangelische Zugewandte
:
Other
[
edit
]
- County of Neuchatel
? 1406 and 1526 treaties with Bern and Solothurn, 1495 treaty with Fribourg and 1501 treaty with Lucerne.
- Imperial Valley of
Urseren
? 1317 treaty with Uri; annexed by Uri in 1410.
- Weggis
? 1332?1380 by treaties with Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Lucerne; annexed by Lucerne in 1480.
- Murten
? from 1353 by treaty with Bern; became a confederal condominium in 1475.
- Payerne
? from 1353 by treaty with Bern; annexed by Bern in 1536.
- County of Sargans
? from 1437 by treaty with Glarus and Schwyz; became a confederal condominium in 1483.
- Barony of Sax-Forstegg
? from 1458 by treaty with Zurich; annexed by Zurich in 1615
- Stein am Rhein
? from 1459 by treaty with Zurich and Schaffhausen; annexed by Zurich in 1484.
- County of Gruyere
? had been allied with Fribourg and Berne since the early 14th century, becoming a full associate of the Confederation in 1548. When the counts fell bankrupt in 1555, the country was partitioned in twain:
[14]
- Lower Gruyere ? from 1475 by treaty with Fribourg
- Upper Gruyere ? from 1403 by treaty with Berne; annexed by Berne in 1555:
- County of Werdenberg
? from 1493 by treaty with Lucerne; annexed by Glarus in 1517.
- Imperial City of
Rottweil
? from 1519 to 1632 through a treaty with all 13 members; a first treaty on military cooperation had already been concluded in 1463. In 1632, the treaty was renewed with Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Solothurn and Fribourg.
- Bishopric of Basel
? 1579?1735 by treaty with Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Solothurn and Fribourg.
Condominiums
[
edit
]
Condominiums
(
German
:
Gemeine Herrschaften
) were common subject territories under the administration of several cantons. They were governed by
reeves
(
Vogte
) delegated for two years, each time from another of the responsible cantons. Bern initially did not participate in the administration of some of the eastern condominiums, as it had no part in their conquest and its interests were focused more on the western border. In 1712, Bern replaced the Catholic cantons in the administration of the
Freie Amter
("Free Districts"), the
Thurgau
, the Rhine valley, and
Sargans
, and furthermore the Catholic cantons were excluded from the administration of the
County of Baden
.
[11]
German bailiwicks
[
edit
]
The "German bailiwicks" (
German
:
Deutsche Gemeine Vogteien, Gemeine Herrschaften
) were generally governed by the
Acht Orte
apart from Bern until 1712, when Bern joined the sovereign powers:
Lombard bailiwicks
[
edit
]
Several
bailiwicks
(
Vogteien
) were generally referred to as "transmontane bailiwicks" (
German
:
Ennetbergische Vogteien
,
Italian
:
Baliaggi Ultramontani
).
In 1440,
Uri
conquered the
Leventina Valley
from the
Visconti
,
dukes of Milan
. Some of this territory had previously been annexed between 1403 and 1422. Further territories were acquired in 1500;
see
History of Ticino
for further details
.
Three bailiwicks, all now in the
Ticino
, were condominiums of the Forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden:
Four other Ticinese bailiwicks were condominiums of the
Zwolf Orte
(the original 13 cantons, minus Appenzell) from 1512:
Another three bailiwicks were condominiums of the
Zwolf Orte
from 1512, but were lost from the Confederacy three years later and are all now
comuni
of
Lombardy
or
Piedmont
:
Two-party condominiums
[
edit
]
Bern and Fribourg
[
edit
]
Glarus and Schwyz
[
edit
]
Condominiums with third-parties
[
edit
]
Protectorates
[
edit
]
- Bellelay Abbey
? protectorate of Bern, Biel and Solothurn from 1414; nominally under the jurisdiction of the
Bishopric of Basel
- Einsiedeln Abbey
? protectorate of Schwyz from 1357
- Engelberg Abbey
? protectorate of Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden from 1425
- Erguel
? protectorate of
Biel/Bienne
under military jurisdiction from 1335; also subject to the Bishopric of Basel
- Imperial
Abbey of St. Gallen
? protectorate of Schwyz, Lucerne, Zurich and Glarus from 1451; the abbey was simultaneously a
Zugewandter Ort
.
- Republic of Gersau
, an independent village ? allied with Schwyz since 1332; Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden were also protecting powers.
- Moutier-Grandval Abbey
? protectorate of Bern from 1486; the abbey was also subject to the Bishopric of Basel and, until 1797, the
Holy Roman Empire
- La Neuveville
? protectorate of Bern from 1388; also subject to the Bishopric of Basel.
- Pfafers Abbey
? protectorate of the
Acht Orte
minus Bern from 1460; annexed to the
County of Sargans
in 1483
- Rapperswil
? protectorate of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Glarus from 1464; of Zurich, Bern and Glarus from 1712
- County of Toggenburg
? protectorate of Schwyz and Glarus from 1436; of Zurich and Bern from 1718. The county was simultaneously subject to St Gallen Abbey.
Separate subjects
[
edit
]
Some territories were separate subjects of cantons or associates,
Einzelortische Untertanen von Landerorten und Zugewandten
:
Schwyz
[
edit
]
Glarus
[
edit
]
Valais
[
edit
]
Three Leagues
[
edit
]
Notes and references
[
edit
]
- ^
Corpus helveticum
, in the
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
.
- ^
Corps helvetique
, in the Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
- ^
a
b
Corpo helvetico
, in the Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
- ^
Kaufmann, David (2018). "4. Bern: the government city".
Varieties of Capital Cities
.
Edward Elgar Publishing
.
ISBN
978-1788116435
.
- ^
Ayres-Bennett, Wendy
; Carruthers, Janice (2018).
Manual of Romance Sociolinguistics
.
De Gruyter
. p. 529.
ISBN
978-3110365955
.
- ^
(
Modern German
:
Alte Eidgenossenschaft
; historically
Eidgenossenschaft
, after the
Reformation
also
Corps des Suisses
,
Confoederatio helvetica
"Confederation of the Swiss")
- ^
In the charters of the 14th century described as "communities" (
communitas hominum
,
Lantlute
), the German term
Orte
becomes common in the early 15th century, used alongside
Stand
"estate" after the Reformation. The French term
canton
is used in Fribourg in 1475, and after 1490 is increasingly used in French and Italian documents. It only enters occasional German usage after 1648, and only gains official status as synonym of
Stand
with the
Act of Mediation
of 1803.
Kantone
in
German
,
French
and
Italian
in the online
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
, 2016.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Adams, Francis Ottiwell; Cunningham, C. D. (1889).
The Swiss Confederation
. Macmillan and Company.
- ^
McCrackan, W. D.,
"The First Perpetual League"
,
The Rise of the Swiss Republic
, retrieved
8 January
2024
- ^
a
b
c
Schwabe & Co.:
Geschichte der Schweiz und der Schweizer
, Schwabe & Co 1986/2004.
ISBN
3-7965-2067-7
(in German)
- ^
a
b
Wurgler, A.:
Eidgenossenschaft
in
German
,
French
and
Italian
in the online
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
, 8 September 2004.
- ^
Wurgler, A.:
Tagsatzung
in
German
,
French
and
Italian
in the online
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
, 1 March 2001.
- ^
Im Hof, U..
Geschichte der Schweiz
, 7th ed., Stuttgart:
W. Kohlhammer
, 1974/2001.
ISBN
3-17-017051-1
.
(in German)
- ^
Boschetti-Maradi, A.:
County of Gruyere
in
German
,
French
and
Italian
in the online
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
, 2004-06-28.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Aubert, J.-F.:
Petite histoire constitutionnelle de la Suisse
, 2nd ed.; Francke Editions, Bern, 1974.
(in French)
- Marabello, Thomas Quinn (2023). "The Origins of Democracy in Switzerland," S
wiss American Historical Society Review
, Vol. 59: No. 1. Available at:
https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol59/iss1/4
- Peyer, H. C.:
Verfassungsgeschichte der alten Schweiz
, Schulthess Polygraphischer Verlag, Zurich, 1978.
ISBN
3-7255-1880-7
.
(in German)
External links
[
edit
]