Chemical element, symbol Cn and atomic number 112
Copernicium,
112
Cn
|
Pronunciation
|
(
KOH
-p?r-
NISS
-ee-?m
)
|
---|
Mass number
| [285]
|
---|
|
|
Atomic number
(
Z
)
| 112
|
---|
Group
| group 12
|
---|
Period
| period 7
|
---|
Block
|
d-block
|
---|
Electron configuration
| [
Rn
] 5f
14
6d
10
7s
2
(predicted)
[1]
|
---|
Electrons per shell
| 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 2
(predicted)
|
---|
|
Phase
at
STP
| liquid
(predicted)
[2]
[3]
|
---|
Melting point
| 283 ± 11
K
(
10 ± 11
°C,
50 ± 20
°F)
(predicted)
[3]
|
---|
Boiling point
| 340 ± 10
K (
67 ± 10
°C,
153 ± 18
°F)
[3]
(predicted
)
|
---|
Density
(near
r.t.
)
| 14.0 g/cm
3
(predicted)
[3]
|
---|
Triple point
| 283 K, 25 kPa
(predicted)
[3]
|
---|
|
Oxidation states
| 0
, (+1),
+2
, (+4), (+6) (parenthesized:
prediction
)
[1]
[4]
[5]
[6]
|
---|
Ionization energies
| - 1st: 1155 kJ/mol
- 2nd: 2170 kJ/mol
- 3rd: 3160 kJ/mol
- (
more
)
(all estimated)
[1]
|
---|
Atomic radius
| calculated: 147
pm
[1]
[5]
(predicted)
|
---|
Covalent radius
| 122 pm
(predicted)
[7]
|
---|
|
Natural occurrence
| synthetic
|
---|
Crystal structure
|
hexagonal close-packed
(hcp)
(predicted)
[3]
|
---|
CAS Number
| 54084-26-3
|
---|
|
Naming
| after
Nicolaus Copernicus
|
---|
Discovery
| Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung
(1996)
|
---|
|
|
|
|
Category: Copernicium
|
references
|
Copernicium
is a
synthetic chemical element
; it has
symbol
Cn
and
atomic number
112. Its known isotopes are extremely
radioactive
, and have only been created in a laboratory. The most stable known
isotope
, copernicium-285, has a
half-life
of approximately 30 seconds. Copernicium was first created in 1996 by the
GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research
near
Darmstadt
, Germany. It was named after the astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus
on his 537th birthday.
In the
periodic table
of the elements, copernicium is a
d-block
transactinide element
and a
group 12 element
. During reactions with
gold
, it has been shown
[10]
to be an extremely volatile element, so much so that it is possibly a gas or a volatile liquid at
standard temperature and pressure
.
Copernicium is calculated to have several properties that differ from its lighter
homologues
in group 12,
zinc
,
cadmium
and
mercury
; due to
relativistic effects
, it may give up its 6d electrons instead of its 7s ones, and it may have more similarities to the
noble gases
such as
radon
rather than its group 12 homologues. Calculations indicate that copernicium may show the
oxidation state
+4, while mercury shows it in
only one compound
of disputed existence and zinc and cadmium do not show it at all. It has also been predicted to be more difficult to oxidize copernicium from its neutral state than the other group 12 elements. Predictions vary on whether solid copernicium would be a metal, semiconductor, or insulator. Copernicium is one of the heaviest elements whose chemical properties have been experimentally investigated.
Introduction
[
edit
]
Synthesis of superheavy nuclei
[
edit
]
A superheavy
[a]
atomic nucleus
is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size
[b]
into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of
mass
, the greater the possibility that the two react.
[16]
The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the
beam
of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only
fuse
into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to
electrostatic repulsion
. The
strong interaction
can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly
accelerated
in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus.
[17]
The energy applied to the beam nuclei to accelerate them can cause them to reach speeds as high as one-tenth of the
speed of light
. However, if too much energy is applied, the beam nucleus can fall apart.
[17]
Coming close enough alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for about 10
?20
second and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus.
[17]
[18]
This happens because during the attempted formation of a single nucleus, electrostatic repulsion tears apart the nucleus that is being formed.
[17]
Each pair of a target and a beam is characterized by its
cross section
?the probability that fusion will occur if two nuclei approach one another expressed in terms of the transverse area that the incident particle must hit in order for the fusion to occur.
[c]
This fusion may occur as a result of the quantum effect in which nuclei can
tunnel
through electrostatic repulsion. If the two nuclei can stay close for past that phase, multiple nuclear interactions result in redistribution of energy and an energy equilibrium.
[17]
The resulting merger is an
excited state
[21]
?termed a
compound nucleus
?and thus it is very unstable.
[17]
To reach a more stable state, the temporary merger may
fission
without formation of a more stable nucleus.
[22]
Alternatively, the compound nucleus may eject a few
neutrons
, which would carry away the excitation energy; if the latter is not sufficient for a neutron expulsion, the merger would produce a
gamma ray
. This happens in about 10
?16
second after the initial nuclear collision and results in creation of a more stable nucleus.
[22]
The definition by the
IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party
(JWP) states that a
chemical element
can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not
decayed
within 10
?14
seconds. This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire its outer
electrons
and thus display its chemical properties.
[23]
[d]
Decay and detection
[
edit
]
The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam.
[25]
In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products)
[e]
and transferred to a
surface-barrier detector
, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival.
[25]
The transfer takes about 10
?6
second; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long.
The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the
energy
, and the time of the decay are measured.
[25]
Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost
nucleons
(
protons
and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, and its range is not limited.
Total
binding energy
provided by the strong interaction increases linearly with the number of nucleons, whereas electrostatic repulsion increases with the square of the atomic number, i.e. the latter grows faster and becomes increasingly important for heavy and superheavy nuclei.
[30]
[31]
Superheavy nuclei are thus theoretically predicted
[32]
and have so far been observed
to predominantly decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion:
alpha decay
and
spontaneous fission
.
[f]
Almost all alpha emitters have over 210 nucleons,
and the lightest nuclide primarily undergoing spontaneous fission has 238.
In both decay modes, nuclei are inhibited from decaying by corresponding
energy barriers
for each mode, but they can be tunneled through.
[30]
[31]
Alpha particles are commonly produced in radioactive decays because mass of an alpha particle per nucleon is small enough to leave some energy for the alpha particle to be used as kinetic energy to leave the nucleus.
Spontaneous fission is caused by electrostatic repulsion tearing the nucleus apart and produces various nuclei in different instances of identical nuclei fissioning.
[31]
As the atomic number increases, spontaneous fission rapidly becomes more important: spontaneous fission partial half-lives decrease by 23 orders of magnitude from
uranium
(element 92) to
nobelium
(element 102),
[39]
and by 30 orders of magnitude from
thorium
(element 90) to
fermium
(element 100).
[40]
The earlier
liquid drop model
thus suggested that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly due to disappearance of the
fission barrier
for nuclei with about 280 nucleons.
[31]
[41]
The later
nuclear shell model
suggested that nuclei with about 300 nucleons would form an
island of stability
in which nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives.
[31]
[41]
Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated; they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and gain additional stability from shell effects.
[42]
Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei,
[43]
as well as those closer to the expected island,
[39]
have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission, showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei.
[g]
Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined.
[h]
(That all decays within a decay chain were indeed related to each other is established by the location of these decays, which must be in the same place.)
[25]
The known nucleus can be recognized by the specific characteristics of decay it undergoes such as decay energy (or more specifically, the
kinetic energy
of the emitted particle).
[i]
Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.
[j]
The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize a superheavy element is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.
[k]
History
[
edit
]
Discovery
[
edit
]
Copernicium was
first created
on February 9, 1996, at the
Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung
(GSI) in
Darmstadt
, Germany, by
Sigurd Hofmann
,
Victor Ninov
et al.
[54]
This element was created by firing accelerated
zinc
-70 nuclei at a target made of
lead
-208 nuclei in a heavy
ion accelerator
. A single atom of copernicium was produced with a
mass number
of 277. (A second was originally reported, but was found to have been based on data fabricated by Ninov, and was thus retracted.)
[54]
- 208
82
Pb +
70
30
Zn →
278
112
Cn* →
277
112
Cn +
1
0
n
In May 2000, the GSI successfully repeated the experiment to synthesize a further atom of copernicium-277.
[55]
This reaction was repeated at
RIKEN
using the Search for a Super-Heavy Element Using a Gas-Filled Recoil Separator set-up in 2004 and 2013 to synthesize three further atoms and confirm the decay data reported by the GSI team.
[56]
[57]
This reaction had also previously been tried in 1971 at the
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
in
Dubna
,
Russia
to aim for
276
Cn (produced in the 2n channel), but without success.
[58]
The
IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party
(JWP) assessed the claim of copernicium's discovery by the GSI team in 2001
[59]
and 2003.
[60]
In both cases, they found that there was insufficient evidence to support their claim. This was primarily related to the contradicting decay data for the known
nuclide
rutherfordium-261. However, between 2001 and 2005, the GSI team studied the reaction
248
Cm(
26
Mg,5n)
269
Hs, and were able to confirm the decay data for
hassium-269
and
rutherfordium-261
. It was found that the existing data on rutherfordium-261 was for an
isomer
,
[61]
now designated rutherfordium-261m.
In May 2009, the JWP reported on the claims of discovery of element 112 again and officially recognized the GSI team as the discoverers of element 112.
[62]
This decision was based on the confirmation of the decay properties of daughter nuclei as well as the confirmatory experiments at RIKEN.
[63]
Work had also been done at the
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
in
Dubna
, Russia from 1998 to synthesise the heavier isotope
283
Cn in the hot fusion reaction
238
U(
48
Ca,3n)
283
Cn; most observed atoms of
283
Cn decayed by spontaneous fission, although an alpha decay branch to
279
Ds was detected. While initial experiments aimed to assign the produced nuclide with its observed long half-life of 3 minutes based on its chemical behaviour, this was found to be not mercury-like as would have been expected (copernicium being under mercury in the periodic table),
[63]
and indeed now it appears that the long-lived activity might not have been from
283
Cn at all, but its
electron capture
daughter
283
Rg instead, with a shorter 4-second half-life associated with
283
Cn. (Another possibility is assignment to a
metastable isomeric state
,
283m
Cn.)
[64]
While later cross-bombardments in the
242
Pu+
48
Ca and
245
Cm+
48
Ca reactions succeeded in confirming the properties of
283
Cn and its parents
287
Fl and
291
Lv, and played a major role in the acceptance of the discoveries of
flerovium
and
livermorium
(elements 114 and 116) by the JWP in 2011, this work originated subsequent to the GSI's work on
277
Cn and priority was assigned to the GSI.
[63]
Naming
[
edit
]
Using
Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements
, copernicium should be known as
eka-
mercury
. In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called
ununbium
(with the corresponding symbol of
Uub
),
[65]
a
systematic element name
as a
placeholder
, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who either called it "element 112", with the symbol of
E112
,
(112)
, or even simply
112
.
[1]
After acknowledging the GSI team's discovery, the
IUPAC
asked them to suggest a permanent name for element 112.
[63]
[66]
On 14 July 2009, they proposed
copernicium
with the element symbol Cp, after
Nicolaus Copernicus
"to honor an outstanding scientist, who changed our view of the world".
[67]
During the standard six-month discussion period among the scientific community about the naming,
[68]
[69]
it was pointed out that the symbol
Cp
was previously associated with the name
cassiopeium
(cassiopium), now known as
lutetium
(Lu).
[70]
[71]
Moreover, Cp is frequently used today to mean the
cyclopentadienyl ligand
(C
5
H
5
).
[72]
Primarily because cassiopeium (Cp) was (until 1949) accepted by IUPAC as an alternative allowed name for lutetium,
[73]
the IUPAC disallowed the use of Cp as a future symbol, prompting the GSI team to put forward the symbol Cn as an alternative. On 19 February 2010, the 537th anniversary of Copernicus' birth, IUPAC officially accepted the proposed name and symbol.
[68]
[74]
Isotopes
[
edit
]
List of copernicium isotopes
Isotope
|
Half-life
[l]
|
Decay
mode
|
Discovery
year
|
Discovery
reaction
|
Value
|
ref
|
277
Cn
|
0.79 ms
|
[8]
|
α
|
1996
|
208
Pb(
70
Zn,n)
|
281
Cn
|
0.18 s
|
[75]
|
α
|
2010
|
285
Fl(?,α)
|
282
Cn
|
0.83 ms
|
[9]
|
SF
|
2003
|
290
Lv(?,2α)
|
283
Cn
|
3.81 s
|
[9]
|
α, SF, EC?
|
2003
|
287
Fl(?,α)
|
284
Cn
|
121 ms
|
[76]
|
α, SF
|
2004
|
288
Fl(?,α)
|
285
Cn
|
30 s
|
[8]
|
α
|
1999
|
289
Fl(?,α)
|
285m
Cn
[m]
|
15 s
|
[8]
|
α
|
2012
|
293m
Lv(?,2α)
|
286
Cn
[m]
|
8.45 s
|
[77]
|
SF
|
2016
|
294
Lv(?,2α)
|
Copernicium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Seven different isotopes have been reported with mass numbers 277 and 281?286, and one unconfirmed
metastable isomer
in
285
Cn has been reported.
[78]
Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, but some undergo
spontaneous fission
, and copernicium-283 may have an
electron capture
branch.
[79]
The isotope copernicium-283 was instrumental in the confirmation of the discoveries of the elements
flerovium
and
livermorium
.
[80]
Half-lives
[
edit
]
All confirmed copernicium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive; in general, heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter. The most stable known isotope,
285
Cn, has a half-life of 30 seconds;
283
Cn has a half-life of 4 seconds, and the unconfirmed
285m
Cn and
286
Cn have half-lives of about 15 and 8.45 seconds respectively. Other isotopes have half-lives shorter than one second.
281
Cn and
284
Cn both have half-lives on the order of 0.1 seconds, and the other two isotopes have half-lives slightly under one millisecond.
[79]
It is predicted that the heavy isotopes
291
Cn and
293
Cn may have half-lives longer than a few decades, for they are predicted to lie near the center of the theoretical
island of stability
, and may have been produced in the
r-process
and be detectable in
cosmic rays
, though they would be about 10
?12
times as abundant as
lead
.
The lightest isotopes of copernicium have been synthesized by direct fusion between two lighter nuclei and as
decay products
(except for
277
Cn, which is not known to be a decay product), while the heavier isotopes are only known to be produced by decay of heavier nuclei. The heaviest isotope produced by direct fusion is
283
Cn; the three heavier isotopes,
284
Cn,
285
Cn, and
286
Cn, have only been observed as decay products of elements with larger atomic numbers.
[79]
In 1999, American scientists at the University of California, Berkeley, announced that they had succeeded in synthesizing three atoms of
293
Og.
[82]
These parent nuclei were reported to have successively emitted three alpha particles to form copernicium-281 nuclei, which were claimed to have undergone alpha decay, emitting alpha particles with decay energy 10.68 MeV and half-life 0.90 ms, but their claim was retracted in 2001
[83]
as it had been based on data fabricated by Ninov.
[84]
This isotope was truly produced in 2010 by the same team; the new data contradicted the previous fabricated data.
[85]
Predicted properties
[
edit
]
Very few properties of copernicium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production
[86]
and the fact that copernicium (and its parents) decays very quickly. A few singular chemical properties have been measured, as well as the boiling point, but properties of the copernicium metal remain generally unknown and for the most part, only predictions are available.
Chemical
[
edit
]
Copernicium is the tenth and last member of the 6d series and is the heaviest
group 12 element
in the periodic table, below
zinc
,
cadmium
and
mercury
. It is predicted to differ significantly from the lighter group 12 elements. The valence s-
subshells
of the group 12 elements and period 7 elements are expected to be relativistically contracted most strongly at copernicium. This and the closed-shell configuration of copernicium result in it probably being a very
noble metal
. A
standard reduction potential
of +2.1 V is predicted for the Cn
2+
/Cn couple. Copernicium's predicted first ionization energy of 1155 kJ/mol almost matches that of the noble gas
xenon
at 1170.4 kJ/mol.
[1]
Copernicium's
metallic bonds
should also be very weak, possibly making it extremely volatile like the noble gases, and potentially making it gaseous at room temperature.
[1]
[87]
However, it should be able to form metal?metal bonds with
copper
,
palladium
,
platinum
,
silver
, and
gold
; these bonds are predicted to be only about 15?20
kJ/mol
weaker than the analogous bonds with mercury.
[1]
In opposition to the earlier suggestion,
[88]
ab initio calculations at the high level of accuracy
[89]
predicted that the chemistry of singly-valent copernicium resembles that of mercury rather than that of the noble gases. The latter result can be explained by the huge
spin?orbit interaction
which significantly lowers the energy of the vacant 7p
1/2
state of copernicium.
Once copernicium is ionized, its chemistry may present several differences from those of zinc, cadmium, and mercury. Due to the stabilization of 7s electronic orbitals and destabilization of 6d ones caused by
relativistic effects
, Cn
2+
is likely to have a [Rn]5f
14
6d
8
7s
2
electronic configuration
, using the 6d orbitals before the 7s one, unlike its homologues. The fact that the 6d electrons participate more readily in chemical bonding means that once copernicium is ionized, it may behave more like a
transition metal
than its lighter
homologues
, especially in the possible +4 oxidation state. In
aqueous solutions
, copernicium may form the +2 and perhaps +4 oxidation states.
[1]
The diatomic ion
Hg
2+
2
, featuring mercury in the +1 oxidation state, is well-known, but the
Cn
2+
2
ion is predicted to be unstable or even non-existent.
[1]
Copernicium(II) fluoride, CnF
2
, should be more unstable than the analogous mercury compound,
mercury(II) fluoride
(HgF
2
), and may even decompose spontaneously into its constituent elements. As the most electronegative reactive element, fluorine may be the only element able to oxidise copernicium even further to the +4 and even +6 oxidation states in CnF
4
and CnF
6
; the latter may require matrix-isolation conditions to be detected, as in the disputed detection of
HgF
4
. CnF
4
should be more stable than CnF
2
.
[6]
In
polar
solvents, copernicium is predicted to preferentially form the
CnF
?
5
and
CnF
?
3
anions rather than the analogous neutral fluorides (CnF
4
and CnF
2
, respectively), although the analogous bromide or iodide ions may be more stable towards
hydrolysis
in aqueous solution. The anions
CnCl
2?
4
and
CnBr
2?
4
should also be able to exist in aqueous solution.
[1]
The formation of thermodynamically stable copernicium(II) and (IV) fluorides would be analogous to the chemistry of xenon.
[3]
Analogous to
mercury(II) cyanide
(Hg(CN)
2
), copernicium is expected to form a stable
cyanide
, Cn(CN)
2
.
[90]
Physical and atomic
[
edit
]
Copernicium should be a dense metal, with a
density
of 14.0 g/cm
3
in the liquid state at 300 K; this is similar to the known density of mercury, which is 13.534 g/cm
3
. (Solid copernicium at the same temperature should have a higher density of 14.7 g/cm
3
.) This results from the effects of copernicium's higher atomic weight being cancelled out by its larger interatomic distances compared to mercury.
[3]
Some calculations predicted copernicium to be a gas at room temperature due to its closed-shell electron configuration,
[91]
which would make it the first gaseous metal in the periodic table.
[1]
[87]
A 2019 calculation agrees with these predictions on the role of relativistic effects, suggesting that copernicium will be a volatile liquid bound by
dispersion forces
under standard conditions. Its melting point is estimated at
283
±
11 K
and its boiling point at
340
±
10 K
, the latter in agreement with the experimentally estimated value of
357
+112
?108
K
.
[3]
The atomic radius of copernicium is expected to be around 147 pm. Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Cn
+
and Cn
2+
ions are predicted to give up 6d electrons instead of 7s electrons, which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues.
[1]
In addition to the relativistic contraction and binding of the 7s subshell, the 6d
5/2
orbital is expected to be destabilized due to
spin?orbit coupling
, making it behave similarly to the 7s orbital in terms of size, shape, and energy. Predictions of the expected band structure of copernicium are varied. Calculations in 2007 expected that copernicium may be a
semiconductor
[92]
with a
band gap
of around 0.2
eV
,
[93]
crystallizing in the
hexagonal close-packed
crystal structure
.
[93]
However, calculations in 2017 and 2018 suggested that copernicium should be a
noble metal
at standard conditions with a
body-centered cubic
crystal structure: it should hence have no band gap, like mercury, although the density of states at the
Fermi level
is expected to be lower for copernicium than for mercury.
[94]
[95]
2019 calculations then suggested that in fact copernicium has a large band gap of 6.4 ± 0.2 eV, which should be similar to that of the noble gas
radon
(predicted as 7.1 eV) and would make it an insulator; bulk copernicium is predicted by these calculations to be bound mostly by
dispersion forces
, like the noble gases.
[3]
Like mercury, radon, and flerovium, but not
oganesson
(eka-radon), copernicium is calculated to have no
electron affinity
.
[96]
Experimental atomic gas phase chemistry
[
edit
]
Interest in copernicium's chemistry was sparked by predictions that it would have the largest relativistic effects in the whole of period 7 and group 12, and indeed among all 118 known elements.
[1]
Copernicium is expected to have the ground state electron configuration [Rn] 5f
14
6d
10
7s
2
and thus should belong to group 12 of the periodic table, according to the
Aufbau principle
. As such, it should behave as the heavier homologue of
mercury
and form strong binary compounds with
noble metals
like gold. Experiments probing the reactivity of copernicium have focused on the
adsorption
of atoms of element 112 onto a gold surface held at varying temperatures, in order to calculate an adsorption enthalpy. Owing to relativistic stabilization of the 7s electrons, copernicium shows radon-like properties. Experiments were performed with the simultaneous formation of mercury and radon radioisotopes, allowing a comparison of adsorption characteristics.
[97]
The first chemical experiments on copernicium were conducted using the
238
U(
48
Ca,3n)
283
Cn reaction. Detection was by spontaneous fission of the claimed parent isotope with half-life of 5 minutes. Analysis of the data indicated that copernicium was more volatile than mercury and had noble gas properties. However, the confusion regarding the synthesis of copernicium-283 has cast some doubt on these experimental results.
[97]
Given this uncertainty, between April?May 2006 at the JINR, a FLNR?PSI team conducted experiments probing the synthesis of this isotope as a daughter in the nuclear reaction
242
Pu(
48
Ca,3n)
287
Fl.
[97]
(The
242
Pu +
48
Ca fusion reaction has a slightly larger cross-section than the
238
U +
48
Ca reaction, so that the best way to produce copernicium for chemical experimentation is as an overshoot product as the daughter of flerovium.)
[98]
In this experiment, two atoms of copernicium-283 were unambiguously identified and the adsorption properties were interpreted to show that copernicium is a more volatile homologue of mercury, due to formation of a weak metal-metal bond with gold.
[97]
This agrees with general indications from some relativistic calculations that copernicium is "more or less" homologous to mercury.
[99]
However, it was pointed out in 2019 that this result may simply be due to strong dispersion interactions.
[3]
In April 2007, this experiment was repeated and a further three atoms of copernicium-283 were positively identified. The adsorption property was confirmed and indicated that copernicium has adsorption properties in agreement with being the heaviest member of group 12.
[97]
These experiments also allowed the first experimental estimation of copernicium's boiling point: 84
+112
?108
°C, so that it may be a gas at standard conditions.
[92]
Because the lighter group 12 elements often occur as
chalcogenide
ores, experiments were conducted in 2015 to deposit copernicium atoms on a
selenium
surface to form copernicium selenide, CnSe. Reaction of copernicium atoms with trigonal selenium to form a selenide was observed, with -Δ
H
ads
Cn
(t-Se) > 48 kJ/mol, with the kinetic hindrance towards selenide formation being lower for copernicium than for mercury. This was unexpected as the stability of the group 12 selenides tends to decrease down the group from
ZnSe
to
HgSe
.
[100]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
In
nuclear physics
, an element is called
heavy
if its atomic number is high;
lead
(element 82) is one example of such a heavy element. The term "superheavy elements" typically refers to elements with atomic number greater than
103
(although there are other definitions, such as atomic number greater than
100
[11]
or 112;
[12]
sometimes, the term is presented an equivalent to the term "transactinide", which puts an upper limit before the beginning of the hypothetical
superactinide
series).
[13]
Terms "heavy isotopes" (of a given element) and "heavy nuclei" mean what could be understood in the common language?isotopes of high mass (for the given element) and nuclei of high mass, respectively.
- ^
In 2009, a team at the JINR led by Oganessian published results of their attempt to create hassium in a symmetric
136
Xe +
136
Xe reaction. They failed to observe a single atom in such a reaction, putting the upper limit on the cross section, the measure of probability of a nuclear reaction, as 2.5
pb
.
[14]
In comparison, the reaction that resulted in hassium discovery,
208
Pb +
58
Fe, had a cross section of ~20 pb (more specifically, 19
+19
-11
pb), as estimated by the discoverers.
[15]
- ^
The amount of energy applied to the beam particle to accelerate it can also influence the value of cross section. For example, in the
28
14
Si
+
1
0
n
→
28
13
Al
+
1
1
p
reaction, cross section changes smoothly from 370 mb at 12.3 MeV to 160 mb at 18.3 MeV, with a broad peak at 13.5 MeV with the maximum value of 380 mb.
[19]
- ^
This figure also marks the generally accepted upper limit for lifetime of a compound nucleus.
[24]
- ^
This separation is based on that the resulting nuclei move past the target more slowly then the unreacted beam nuclei. The separator contains electric and magnetic fields whose effects on a moving particle cancel out for a specific velocity of a particle.
Such separation can also be aided by a
time-of-flight measurement
and a recoil energy measurement; a combination of the two may allow to estimate the mass of a nucleus.
- ^
Not all decay modes are caused by electrostatic repulsion. For example,
beta decay
is caused by the
weak interaction
.
- ^
It was already known by the 1960s that ground states of nuclei differed in energy and shape as well as that certain magic numbers of nucleons corresponded to greater stability of a nucleus. However, it was assumed that there was no nuclear structure in superheavy nuclei as they were too deformed to form one.
[39]
- ^
Since mass of a nucleus is not measured directly but is rather calculated from that of another nucleus, such measurement is called indirect. Direct measurements are also possible, but for the most part they have remained unavailable for superheavy nuclei.
[44]
The first direct measurement of mass of a superheavy nucleus was reported in 2018 at LBNL.
[45]
Mass was determined from the location of a nucleus after the transfer (the location helps determine its trajectory, which is linked to the mass-to-charge ratio of the nucleus, since the transfer was done in presence of a magnet).
[46]
- ^
If the decay occurred in a vacuum, then since total momentum of an isolated system before and after the decay
must be preserved
, the daughter nucleus would also receive a small velocity. The ratio of the two velocities, and accordingly the ratio of the kinetic energies, would thus be inverse to the ratio of the two masses. The decay energy equals the sum of the known kinetic energy of the alpha particle and that of the daughter nucleus (an exact fraction of the former).
The calculations hold for an experiment as well, but the difference is that the nucleus does not move after the decay because it is tied to the detector.
- ^
Spontaneous fission was discovered by Soviet physicist
Georgy Flerov
,
[47]
a leading scientist at JINR, and thus it was a "hobbyhorse" for the facility.
[48]
In contrast, the LBL scientists believed fission information was not sufficient for a claim of synthesis of an element. They believed spontaneous fission had not been studied enough to use it for identification of a new element, since there was a difficulty of establishing that a compound nucleus had only ejected neutrons and not charged particles like protons or alpha particles.
[24]
They thus preferred to link new isotopes to the already known ones by successive alpha decays.
[47]
- ^
For instance, element 102 was mistakenly identified in 1957 at the Nobel Institute of Physics in
Stockholm
,
Stockholm County
,
Sweden
.
[49]
There were no earlier definitive claims of creation of this element, and the element was assigned a name by its Swedish, American, and British discoverers,
nobelium
. It was later shown that the identification was incorrect.
The following year, RL was unable to reproduce the Swedish results and announced instead their synthesis of the element; that claim was also disproved later.
JINR insisted that they were the first to create the element and suggested a name of their own for the new element,
joliotium
;
the Soviet name was also not accepted (JINR later referred to the naming of the element 102 as "hasty").
[52]
This name was proposed to IUPAC in a written response to their ruling on priority of discovery claims of elements, signed 29 September 1992.
[52]
The name "nobelium" remained unchanged on account of its widespread usage.
[53]
- ^
Different sources give different values for half-lives; the most recently published values are listed.
- ^
a
b
This isotope is unconfirmed
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.).
The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements
(3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands:
Springer Science+Business Media
.
ISBN
978-1-4020-3555-5
.
- ^
Soverna S 2004,
'Indication for a gaseous element 112,'
in U Grundinger (ed.),
GSI Scientific Report 2003,
GSI Report 2004-1, p. 187, ISSN 0174-0814
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
Mewes, J.-M.; Smits, O. R.; Kresse, G.; Schwerdtfeger, P. (2019).
"Copernicium is a Relativistic Noble Liquid"
.
Angewandte Chemie International Edition
.
doi
:
10.1002/anie.201906966
.
- ^
Gaggeler, Heinz W.; Turler, Andreas (2013).
"Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements"
.
The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements
.
Springer Science+Business Media
. pp. 415?483.
doi
:
10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1_8
.
ISBN
978-3-642-37465-4
. Retrieved
2018-04-21
.
- ^
a
b
Fricke, Burkhard (1975).
"Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties"
.
Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry
. Structure and Bonding.
21
: 89?144.
doi
:
10.1007/BFb0116498
.
ISBN
978-3-540-07109-9
. Retrieved
4 October
2013
.
- ^
a
b
Hu, Shu-Xian; Zou, Wenli (23 September 2021). "Stable copernicium hexafluoride (CnF
6
) with an oxidation state of VI+".
Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics
.
2022
(24): 321?325.
doi
:
10.1039/D1CP04360A
.
PMID
34889909
.
- ^
Chemical Data. Copernicium - Cn
, Royal Chemical Society
- ^
a
b
c
d
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
(PDF)
.
Chinese Physics C
.
45
(3): 030001.
doi
:
10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
.
- ^
a
b
c
Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Ibadullayev, D.; et al. (2022). "Investigation of
48
Ca-induced reactions with
242
Pu and
238
U targets at the JINR Superheavy Element Factory".
Physical Review C
.
106
(24612).
Bibcode
:
2022PhRvC.106b4612O
.
doi
:
10.1103/PhysRevC.106.024612
.
S2CID
251759318
.
- ^
Eichler, R.; et al. (2007). "Chemical Characterization of Element 112".
Nature
.
447
(7140): 72?75.
Bibcode
:
2007Natur.447...72E
.
doi
:
10.1038/nature05761
.
PMID
17476264
.
S2CID
4347419
.
- ^
Kramer, K. (2016).
"Explainer: superheavy elements"
.
Chemistry World
. Retrieved
2020-03-15
.
- ^
"Discovery of Elements 113 and 115"
.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
. Archived from
the original
on 2015-09-11
. Retrieved
2020-03-15
.
- ^
Eliav, E.; Kaldor, U.; Borschevsky, A. (2018). "Electronic Structure of the Transactinide Atoms". In Scott, R. A. (ed.).
Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry
.
John Wiley & Sons
. pp. 1?16.
doi
:
10.1002/9781119951438.eibc2632
.
ISBN
978-1-119-95143-8
.
S2CID
127060181
.
- ^
Oganessian, Yu. Ts.
; Dmitriev, S. N.; Yeremin, A. V.; et al. (2009). "Attempt to produce the isotopes of element 108 in the fusion reaction
136
Xe +
136
Xe".
Physical Review C
.
79
(2): 024608.
doi
:
10.1103/PhysRevC.79.024608
.
ISSN
0556-2813
.
- ^
Munzenberg, G.
;
Armbruster, P.
; Folger, H.; et al. (1984).
"The identification of element 108"
(PDF)
.
Zeitschrift fur Physik A
.
317
(2): 235?236.
Bibcode
:
1984ZPhyA.317..235M
.
doi
:
10.1007/BF01421260
.
S2CID
123288075
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 7 June 2015
. Retrieved
20 October
2012
.
- ^
Subramanian, S.
(28 August 2019).
"Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist"
.
Bloomberg Businessweek
. Retrieved
2020-01-18
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Ivanov, D. (2019).
"Сверхтяжелые шаги в неизвестное"
[Superheavy steps into the unknown].
nplus1.ru
(in Russian)
. Retrieved
2020-02-02
.
- ^
Hinde, D. (2017).
"Something new and superheavy at the periodic table"
.
The Conversation
. Retrieved
2020-01-30
.
- ^
Kern, B. D.; Thompson, W. E.; Ferguson, J. M. (1959). "Cross sections for some (n, p) and (n, α) reactions".
Nuclear Physics
.
10
: 226?234.
Bibcode
:
1959NucPh..10..226K
.
doi
:
10.1016/0029-5582(59)90211-1
.
- ^
Wakhle, A.; Simenel, C.; Hinde, D. J.; et al. (2015). Simenel, C.; Gomes, P. R. S.; Hinde, D. J.; et al. (eds.).
"Comparing Experimental and Theoretical Quasifission Mass Angle Distributions"
.
European Physical Journal Web of Conferences
.
86
: 00061.
Bibcode
:
2015EPJWC..8600061W
.
doi
:
10.1051/epjconf/20158600061
.
hdl
:
1885/148847
.
ISSN
2100-014X
.
- ^
"Nuclear Reactions"
(PDF)
. pp. 7?8
. Retrieved
2020-01-27
.
Published as
Loveland, W. D.; Morrissey, D. J.;
Seaborg, G. T.
(2005). "Nuclear Reactions".
Modern Nuclear Chemistry
.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
pp. 249?297.
doi
:
10.1002/0471768626.ch10
.
ISBN
978-0-471-76862-3
.
- ^
a
b
Krasa, A. (2010). "Neutron Sources for ADS".
Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering
.
Czech Technical University in Prague
: 4?8.
S2CID
28796927
.
- ^
Wapstra, A. H.
(1991).
"Criteria that must be satisfied for the discovery of a new chemical element to be recognized"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
63
(6): 883.
doi
:
10.1351/pac199163060879
.
ISSN
1365-3075
.
S2CID
95737691
.
- ^
a
b
Hyde, E. K.;
Hoffman, D. C.
; Keller, O. L. (1987).
"A History and Analysis of the Discovery of Elements 104 and 105"
.
Radiochimica Acta
.
42
(2): 67?68.
doi
:
10.1524/ract.1987.42.2.57
.
ISSN
2193-3405
.
S2CID
99193729
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Chemistry World
(2016).
"How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table [Video]"
.
Scientific American
. Retrieved
2020-01-27
.
- ^
a
b
Pauli, N. (2019).
"Alpha decay"
(PDF)
.
Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part)
.
Universite libre de Bruxelles
. Retrieved
2020-02-16
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Pauli, N. (2019).
"Nuclear fission"
(PDF)
.
Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part)
.
Universite libre de Bruxelles
. Retrieved
2020-02-16
.
- ^
Staszczak, A.; Baran, A.; Nazarewicz, W. (2013).
"Spontaneous fission modes and lifetimes of superheavy elements in the nuclear density functional theory"
.
Physical Review C
.
87
(2): 024320?1.
arXiv
:
1208.1215
.
Bibcode
:
2013PhRvC..87b4320S
.
doi
:
10.1103/physrevc.87.024320
.
ISSN
0556-2813
.
- ^
Aksenov, N. V.; Steinegger, P.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; et al. (2017). "On the volatility of nihonium (Nh, Z = 113)".
The European Physical Journal A
.
53
(7): 158.
Bibcode
:
2017EPJA...53..158A
.
doi
:
10.1140/epja/i2017-12348-8
.
ISSN
1434-6001
.
S2CID
125849923
.
- ^
a
b
c
Oganessian, Yu. (2012).
"Nuclei in the "Island of Stability" of Superheavy Elements"
.
Journal of Physics: Conference Series
.
337
(1): 012005-1?012005-6.
Bibcode
:
2012JPhCS.337a2005O
.
doi
:
10.1088/1742-6596/337/1/012005
.
ISSN
1742-6596
.
- ^
Moller, P.; Nix, J. R. (1994).
Fission properties of the heaviest elements
(PDF)
. Dai 2 Kai Hadoron Tataikei no Simulation Symposium, Tokai-mura, Ibaraki, Japan.
University of North Texas
. Retrieved
2020-02-16
.
- ^
a
b
Oganessian, Yu. Ts. (2004).
"Superheavy elements"
.
Physics World
.
17
(7): 25?29.
doi
:
10.1088/2058-7058/17/7/31
. Retrieved
2020-02-16
.
- ^
Schadel, M. (2015).
"Chemistry of the superheavy elements"
.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
.
373
(2037): 20140191.
Bibcode
:
2015RSPTA.37340191S
.
doi
:
10.1098/rsta.2014.0191
.
ISSN
1364-503X
.
PMID
25666065
.
- ^
Hulet, E. K. (1989).
Biomodal spontaneous fission
. 50th Anniversary of Nuclear Fission, Leningrad, USSR.
Bibcode
:
1989nufi.rept...16H
.
- ^
Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Rykaczewski, K. P. (2015).
"A beachhead on the island of stability"
.
Physics Today
.
68
(8): 32?38.
Bibcode
:
2015PhT....68h..32O
.
doi
:
10.1063/PT.3.2880
.
ISSN
0031-9228
.
OSTI
1337838
.
S2CID
119531411
.
- ^
Grant, A. (2018). "Weighing the heaviest elements".
Physics Today
.
doi
:
10.1063/PT.6.1.20181113a
.
S2CID
239775403
.
- ^
Howes, L. (2019).
"Exploring the superheavy elements at the end of the periodic table"
.
Chemical & Engineering News
. Retrieved
2020-01-27
.
- ^
a
b
Robinson, A. E. (2019).
"The Transfermium Wars: Scientific Brawling and Name-Calling during the Cold War"
.
Distillations
. Retrieved
2020-02-22
.
- ^
"Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Сиборгий (экавольфрам)"
[Popular library of chemical elements. Seaborgium (eka-tungsten)].
n-t.ru
(in Russian)
. Retrieved
2020-01-07
.
Reprinted from
"Экавольфрам" [Eka-tungsten].
Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Серебро ? Нильсборий и далее
[
Popular library of chemical elements. Silver through nielsbohrium and beyond
] (in Russian).
Nauka
. 1977.
- ^
"Nobelium - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table"
.
Royal Society of Chemistry
. Retrieved
2020-03-01
.
- ^
a
b
Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (1993).
"Responses on the report 'Discovery of the Transfermium elements' followed by reply to the responses by Transfermium Working Group"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
65
(8): 1815?1824.
doi
:
10.1351/pac199365081815
.
S2CID
95069384
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 25 November 2013
. Retrieved
7 September
2016
.
- ^
Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (1997).
"Names and symbols of transfermium elements (IUPAC Recommendations 1997)"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
69
(12): 2471?2474.
doi
:
10.1351/pac199769122471
.
- ^
a
b
Hofmann, S.; et al. (1996). "The new element 112".
Zeitschrift fur Physik A
.
354
(1): 229?230.
Bibcode
:
1996ZPhyA.354..229H
.
doi
:
10.1007/BF02769517
.
S2CID
119975957
.
- ^
Hofmann, S.; et al. (2000).
"New Results on Element 111 and 112"
(PDF)
.
European Physical Journal A
.
14
(2).
Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung
: 147?157.
Bibcode
:
2002EPJA...14..147H
.
doi
:
10.1140/epja/i2001-10119-x
.
S2CID
8773326
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on February 27, 2008
. Retrieved
March 2,
2008
.
- ^
Morita, K. (2004). "Decay of an Isotope
277
112 produced by
208
Pb +
70
Zn reaction". In Penionzhkevich, Yu. E.; Cherepanov, E. A. (eds.).
Exotic Nuclei: Proceedings of the International Symposium
.
World Scientific
. pp. 188?191.
doi
:
10.1142/9789812701749_0027
.
- ^
Sumita, Takayuki; Morimoto, Kouji; Kaji, Daiya; Haba, Hiromitsu; Ozeki, Kazutaka; Sakai, Ryutaro; Yoneda, Akira; Yoshida, Atsushi; Hasebe, Hiroo; Katori, Kenji; Sato, Nozomi; Wakabayashi, Yasuo; Mitsuoka, Shin-Ichi; Goto, Shin-Ichi; Murakami, Masashi; Kariya, Yoshiki; Tokanai, Fuyuki; Mayama, Keita; Takeyama, Mirei; Moriya, Toru; Ideguchi, Eiji; Yamaguchi, Takayuki; Kikunaga, Hidetoshi; Chiba, Junsei; Morita, Kosuke (2013). "New Result on the Production of277Cn by the208Pb +70Zn Reaction".
Journal of the Physical Society of Japan
.
82
(2): 024202.
Bibcode
:
2013JPSJ...82b4202S
.
doi
:
10.7566/JPSJ.82.024202
.
- ^
Popeko, Andrey G. (2016).
"Synthesis of superheavy elements"
(PDF)
.
jinr.ru
.
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on February 4, 2018
. Retrieved
4 February
2018
.
- ^
Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Petley, B. W.; Vogt, E. (2001).
"On the Discovery of the Elements 110?112"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
73
(6): 959?967.
doi
:
10.1351/pac200173060959
.
S2CID
97615948
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on March 9, 2018
. Retrieved
January 9,
2008
.
- ^
Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Petley, B. W.; Vogt, E. (2003).
"On the Claims for Discovery of Elements 110, 111, 112, 114, 116 and 118"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
75
(10): 1061?1611.
doi
:
10.1351/pac200375101601
.
S2CID
95920517
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on August 22, 2016
. Retrieved
January 9,
2008
.
- ^
Dressler, R.; Turler, A. (2001).
"Evidence for Isomeric States in
261
Rf"
(PDF)
.
Annual Report
.
Paul Scherrer Institute
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2011-07-07.
- ^
"A New Chemical Element in the Periodic Table"
.
Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung
. 10 June 2009. Archived from
the original
on August 23, 2009
. Retrieved
April 14,
2012
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Barber, R. C.; et al. (2009).
"Discovery of the element with atomic number 112"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
81
(7): 1331.
doi
:
10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05
.
S2CID
95703833
.
- ^
Hofmann, S.; Heinz, S.; Mann, R.; Maurer, J.; Munzenberg, G.; Antalic, S.; Barth, W.; Burkhard, H. G.; Dahl, L.; Eberhardt, K.; Grzywacz, R.; Hamilton, J. H.; Henderson, R. A.; Kenneally, J. M.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Lang, R.; Lommel, B.; Miernik, K.; Miller, D.; Moody, K. J.; Morita, K.; Nishio, K.; Popeko, A. G.; Roberto, J. B.; Runke, J.; Rykaczewski, K. P.; Saro, S.; Schneidenberger, C.; Schott, H. J.; Shaughnessy, D. A.; Stoyer, M. A.; Thorle-Pospiech, P.; Tinschert, K.; Trautmann, N.; Uusitalo, J.; Yeremin, A. V. (2016). "Remarks on the Fission Barriers of SHN and Search for Element 120". In Peninozhkevich, Yu. E.; Sobolev, Yu. G. (eds.).
Exotic Nuclei: EXON-2016 Proceedings of the International Symposium on Exotic Nuclei
. Exotic Nuclei. pp. 155?164.
ISBN
9789813226555
.
- ^
Chatt, J. (1979).
"Recommendations for the naming of elements of atomic numbers greater than 100"
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
51
(2): 381?384.
doi
:
10.1351/pac197951020381
.
- ^
"New Chemical Element in the Periodic Table"
.
Science Daily
. 11 June 2009.
- ^
"Element 112 shall be named "copernicium"
"
.
Gesellschaft fur Schwerionenforschung
. 14 July 2009. Archived from
the original
on 18 July 2009.
- ^
a
b
"New element named 'copernicium'
"
.
BBC News
. 16 July 2009
. Retrieved
2010-02-22
.
- ^
"Start of the Name Approval Process for the Element of Atomic Number 112"
.
IUPAC
. 20 July 2009. Archived from
the original
on November 27, 2012
. Retrieved
April 14,
2012
.
- ^
Meija, Juris (2009).
"The need for a fresh symbol to designate copernicium"
.
Nature
.
461
(7262): 341.
Bibcode
:
2009Natur.461..341M
.
doi
:
10.1038/461341c
.
PMID
19759598
.
- ^
van der Krogt, P.
"Lutetium"
.
Elementymology & Elements Multidict
. Retrieved
2010-02-22
.
- ^
"Minutes, Division VIII Committee meeting, Glasgow, 2009"
(PDF)
.
iupac.org
. IUPAC. 2009
. Retrieved
11 January
2024
.
- ^
Tatsumi, Kazuyuki; Corish, John (2010).
"Name and symbol of the element with atomic number 112 (IUPAC Recommendations 2010)"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
82
(3): 753?755.
doi
:
10.1351/PAC-REC-09-08-20
. Retrieved
11 January
2024
.
- ^
"IUPAC Element 112 is Named Copernicium"
.
IUPAC
. 19 February 2010. Archived from
the original
on March 4, 2016
. Retrieved
2012-04-13
.
- ^
Utyonkov, V. K.; Brewer, N. T.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (30 January 2018).
"Neutron-deficient superheavy nuclei obtained in the
240
Pu+
48
Ca reaction"
.
Physical Review C
.
97
(14320): 014320.
Bibcode
:
2018PhRvC..97a4320U
.
doi
:
10.1103/PhysRevC.97.014320
.
- ^
Samark-Roth, A.; Cox, D. M.; Rudolph, D.; et al. (2021).
"Spectroscopy along Flerovium Decay Chains: Discovery of
280
Ds and an Excited State in
282
Cn"
.
Physical Review Letters
.
126
(3): 032503.
Bibcode
:
2021PhRvL.126c2503S
.
doi
:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.032503
.
hdl
:
10486/705608
.
PMID
33543956
.
S2CID
231818619
.
- ^
Kaji, Daiya; Morita, Kosuke; Morimoto, Kouji; Haba, Hiromitsu; Asai, Masato; Fujita, Kunihiro; Gan, Zaiguo; Geissel, Hans; Hasebe, Hiroo; Hofmann, Sigurd; Huang, MingHui; Komori, Yukiko; Ma, Long; Maurer, Joachim; Murakami, Masashi; Takeyama, Mirei; Tokanai, Fuyuki; Tanaka, Taiki; Wakabayashi, Yasuo; Yamaguchi, Takayuki; Yamaki, Sayaka; Yoshida, Atsushi (2017). "Study of the Reaction
48
Ca +
248
Cm →
296
Lv* at RIKEN-GARIS".
Journal of the Physical Society of Japan
.
86
(3): 034201?1?7.
Bibcode
:
2017JPSJ...86c4201K
.
doi
:
10.7566/JPSJ.86.034201
.
- ^
Hofmann, S.; Heinz, S.; Mann, R.; et al. (2012). "The reaction
48
Ca +
248
Cm →
296
116
*
studied at the GSI-SHIP".
The European Physical Journal A
.
48
(5): 62.
Bibcode
:
2012EPJA...48...62H
.
doi
:
10.1140/epja/i2012-12062-1
.
S2CID
121930293
.
- ^
a
b
c
Holden, N. E. (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide (ed.).
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
(85th ed.).
CRC Press
.
Section 11
.
ISBN
978-0-8493-0485-9
.
- ^
Barber, R. C.; et al. (2011).
"Discovery of the elements with atomic numbers greater than or equal to 113"
(PDF)
.
Pure and Applied Chemistry
.
83
(7): 5?7.
doi
:
10.1351/PAC-REP-10-05-01
.
S2CID
98065999
.
- ^
Ninov, V.; et al. (1999).
"Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of
86
Kr
with
208
Pb
"
.
Physical Review Letters
.
83
(6): 1104?1107.
Bibcode
:
1999PhRvL..83.1104N
.
doi
:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1104
.
- ^
Public Affairs Department (21 July 2001).
"Results of element 118 experiment retracted"
.
Berkeley Lab
. Archived from
the original
on January 29, 2008
. Retrieved
2008-01-18
.
- ^
"At Lawrence Berkeley, Physicists Say a Colleague Took Them for a Ride"
George Johnson,
The New York Times
, 15 October 2002
- ^
Public Affairs Department (26 October 2010).
"Six New Isotopes of the Superheavy Elements Discovered: Moving Closer to Understanding the Island of Stability"
.
Berkeley Lab
. Retrieved
2011-04-25
.
- ^
Subramanian, S. (August 28, 2019).
"Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist"
.
Bloomberg Businessweek
. Retrieved
2020-01-18
.
- ^
a
b
"Chemistry on the islands of stability",
New Scientist
, 11 September 1975, p. 574,
ISSN
1032-1233
- ^
Pitzer, K. S. (1975).
"Are elements 112, 114, and 118 relatively inert gases?"
.
The Journal of Chemical Physics
.
63
(2): 1032?1033.
doi
:
10.1063/1.431398
.
- ^
Mosyagin, N. S.; Isaev, T. A.; Titov, A. V. (2006). "Is E112 a relatively inert element? Benchmark relativistic correlation study of spectroscopic constants in E112H and its cation".
The Journal of Chemical Physics
.
124
(22): 224302.
arXiv
:
physics/0508024
.
Bibcode
:
2006JChPh.124v4302M
.
doi
:
10.1063/1.2206189
.
PMID
16784269
.
S2CID
119339584
.
- ^
Demissie, Taye B.; Ruud, Kenneth (25 February 2017). "Darmstadtium, roentgenium, and copernicium form strong bonds with cyanide".
International Journal of Quantum Chemistry
.
2017
: e25393.
doi
:
10.1002/qua.25393
.
hdl
:
10037/13632
.
- ^
Kratz, Jens Volker.
The Impact of Superheavy Elements on the Chemical and Physical Sciences
Archived
June 14, 2022, at the
Wayback Machine
. 4th International Conference on the Chemistry and Physics of the Transactinide Elements, 5?11 September 2011, Sochi, Russia
- ^
a
b
Eichler, R.; Aksenov, N. V.; Belozerov, A. V.; Bozhikov, G. A.; Chepigin, V. I.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Dressler, R.; Gaggeler, H. W.; et al. (2008). "Thermochemical and physical properties of element 112".
Angewandte Chemie
.
47
(17): 3262?3266.
doi
:
10.1002/anie.200705019
.
PMID
18338360
.
- ^
a
b
Gaston, Nicola; Opahle, Ingo; Gaggeler, Heinz W.; Schwerdtfeger, Peter (2007).
"Is eka-mercury (element 112) a group 12 metal?"
.
Angewandte Chemie
.
46
(10): 1663?1666.
doi
:
10.1002/anie.200604262
.
PMID
17397075
. Retrieved
5 November
2013
.
- ^
Gyanchandani, Jyoti; Mishra, Vinayak; Dey, G. K.; Sikka, S. K. (January 2018).
"Super heavy element Copernicium: Cohesive and electronic properties revisited"
.
Solid State Communications
.
269
: 16?22.
Bibcode
:
2018SSCom.269...16G
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.ssc.2017.10.009
. Retrieved
28 March
2018
.
- ^
?en?arikova, Hana; Legut, Dominik (2018). "The effect of relativity on stability of Copernicium phases, their electronic structure and mechanical properties".
Physica B
.
536
: 576?582.
arXiv
:
1810.01955
.
Bibcode
:
2018PhyB..536..576C
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.physb.2017.11.035
.
S2CID
119100368
.
- ^
Borschevsky, Anastasia; Pershina, Valeria; Kaldor, Uzi; Eliav, Ephraim.
"Fully relativistic
ab initio
studies of superheavy elements"
(PDF)
.
www.kernchemie.uni-mainz.de
.
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on January 15, 2018
. Retrieved
15 January
2018
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Gaggeler, H. W. (2007).
"Gas Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements"
(PDF)
.
Paul Scherrer Institute
. pp. 26?28. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2012-02-20.
- ^
Moody, Ken (2013). "Synthesis of Superheavy Elements". In Schadel, Matthias; Shaughnessy, Dawn (eds.).
The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements
(2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 24?28.
ISBN
9783642374661
.
- ^
Zaitsevskii, A.; van Wullen, C.; Rusakov, A.; Titov, A. (September 2007).
"Relativistic DFT and ab initio calculations on the seventh-row superheavy elements: E113 ? E114"
(PDF)
.
jinr.ru
. Retrieved
17 February
2018
.
- ^
"Annual Report 2015: Laboratory of Radiochemistry and Environmental Chemistry"
(PDF)
. Paul Scherrer Institute. 2015. p. 3.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties".
Chinese Physics C
.
41
(3). 030001.
Bibcode
:
2017ChPhC..41c0001A
.
doi
:
10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001
.
- Beiser, A. (2003).
Concepts of modern physics
(6th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN
978-0-07-244848-1
.
OCLC
48965418
.
- Hoffman, D. C.
;
Ghiorso, A.
; Seaborg, G. T. (2000).
The Transuranium People: The Inside Story
.
World Scientific
.
ISBN
978-1-78-326244-1
.
- Kragh, H.
(2018).
From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation
.
Springer
.
ISBN
978-3-319-75813-8
.
- Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013).
"Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?"
(PDF)
.
11th International Conference on Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions (NN2012)
. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Publishing.
doi
:
10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001
. Retrieved
20 August
2013
.
External links
[
edit
]
Look up
copernicium
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
|
---|
Scientific career
| |
---|
Works
| |
---|
Family
| |
---|
Related
| |
---|