?????????? ???? ????????????? ( ?????? : Electricity) ????? ?? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ? ???????. ?????? ??????? ??? ???????????? ??????????. ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??? ?????. ??????????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????/?????.

?????? [ ?????? ]

????.?? 600 ??.?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ???? ????????????? ??????? ???????????. ? ?????? amber (??? ????????) ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????????. ? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????. ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? "electron" ???????? ? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ??? ????????. ?? ????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ?? ???????????? (???????????? ???????? ???) ?? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????. ????? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???????? ????, ???????????? ????????? ??? ???????? ???? ????????????. ? ????? ??????????????? ????? ???????? ??????. ??.?. 1600 ??.?? ???? ????? ??? ???????????? ????? ???? ????????????? ??????????????. ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ????????????, ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???????????, ????? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????. ? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????. ? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????????. ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????????????. ??? ????????? ?????????? ???????????. ??? ????? ??????? ???????? (?????????????) ??????? ???????????.

???????? - ????? [ ?????? ]

• ????? ???????? - ?????? ???????? ?? ???????
• ?????? ???????? - ????? ????? ????????? ???????.

?????? ???? [ ?????? ]

???????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ??????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ????????.

???????? ??????????? [ ?????? ]

???? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ??? ? ??????? ???? ??????????? ????????. ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????. ????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????? "?????? ?????"

????? [ ?????? ]

????????? A,B ??? ????? ????????? ?????? V _A ,V _B ??? ??????????? ??? ????? ??????????????. ?????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????. ??????? A,B ? ???? ??????????? ???? ??????? ?????????????. ??????? A ???? ????????????, B ???? ???????????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????????? A ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ? ??? ??????. ???????? A ??????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ???????. B ??? ??????? ???????????? ????? ???? ??????????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????. ??????? B ??????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ???????. ??????? ???????? ??????? A ??????? ????? B ????????? ?????????????. ?????? ????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?? A ??????? ???? ?????? ???????????, ?????????? ?? ???????? ?? B ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ??? ???????????. ???? ???????? A ????? B ?? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? B ????? A ?? ???????. ?????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????????.

???????????? ??? [ ?????? ]

????????????? ???? ??????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? "???????????? ???" ??????. ?????? ???????? (e.m.f) ?? ??????????. ?????? ????????? ??????????.

?????? ???????? ????? [ ?????? ]

?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? , ???????? ??????????? , ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????????.

?????? ????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

• ???????? ????: ???????
• ?????? ???????????: ?????
• ???? ?? : ???? ??????????, ???????????? ????????.
• ????????: ?????????? (????? ?????)

???? , ??????? ? ???????? [ ?????? ]

???? ?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

?? ??????? ????? ?? ??????????, ??? ????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? "???????? ?????? ??????" ??????.

• ???????? ?????? ?????????? "?????? ????"?? ???????.
• ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????.
• ?????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???????????.

???? ?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

????? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ???????????, ?? ????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????.

• ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???????????? ??? ????????.
• ? ????????? ????????? ????? ??.??.??? ??? ???????.

?????? ?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

?? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????????? ??, ????? ????? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????.

• ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??????,??????,????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????.
• ? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????????.
• ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????????.

?????? ?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

?? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????????????????? ?? ?????? ?????????, ????? ??????????????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????.

• ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ???????? ????????? ????????.
• ? ???????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????????.
• ? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????????.

???????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

???????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????.????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????????? ???????????????.? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????, ???? ???? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????????.????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????????. ?????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????? ? ????? ?????, ???? ?? ??????? ??????. ?? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ??????.

• ???????, ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????? ? ?????? "??????" ??????.
• ????? ??, ?????????? ???????? ??????????? "???????" ??????.?????? "R" ??? ???????? ??????????.
• ?????????? ? ??????? ????????? ??????????.

• 
  ????????? ???????? (a) ???????, (b) ?????????? (?????????? ?????? ??????), (c) ???????????????
• 
  ?????????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????.

• ???? ?????????? ??????? "??" ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? "Ω" (?????) ?? ??????????. ?? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????. ??? ????? ?????????,????? ??????????? "???? ??", " ?????? ??" ?????? ???????.
• ?? ?????? ?? = 10 ^?3 Ω, ?? ???? ?? = 10 ⁶ Ω ????????.
• ?????? ????? ?????????? " ???????? " ??????. ?????? "??(mho)" ??? ????????? ??????????.
• ???????? ?????? , ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ??????.
• ???????? = ${\displaystyle {1 \over R}}$

?? ????? [ ?????? ]

????? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? (i) ? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????????? (V) ?? ??????????????? ???????.

${\displaystyle {V}}$ α ${\displaystyle {i}}$
${\displaystyle {V}}$ α ${\displaystyle {iR}}$

?? ??????????, ??? ${\displaystyle {R}}$ ?????? ?????????. ??? ???? ?????????? ???????????.

?? ????????? ${\displaystyle {V}}$=??????, ${\displaystyle {i}}$= 1 ??????? ?????,

${\displaystyle {R={1volt \over 1amp}=1ohm}}$ ????????.

?? ?? ?????(Ω) ?? ??????????.???? ????????? ????-??, ????-?? ??? ??????????.

• ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????.
• ???????? ??????????? (V) ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????????.

????? ???????? [ ?????? ]

?? ????????? ???????????? ??????????. ???

• ${\displaystyle {V=iR}}$
• ${\displaystyle {{i}={V \over R}}}$
• ${\displaystyle {{R}={V \over i}}}$

? ???? ????????? ???????? ???????????????? "????? ??????????" ????????????. ?????? ${\displaystyle {V}}$ ?????????? ${\displaystyle {iR}}$???, ${\displaystyle {i}}$ ?????????? ${\displaystyle {V \over R}}$, ${\displaystyle {R}}$ ?????????? ${\displaystyle {V \over iR}}$ ????????????. ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???????????.

???????? [ ?????? ]

• ?? ???????,?? ????????,?? ??????,?? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????. ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????.
• ?????? ??????? ???????????? ( ${\displaystyle {{R}={V \over i}}}$ ??)
• ?????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????.
• ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????.
• ???????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ??????. ????? ????????? ${\displaystyle {V \over i}}$ ???????? ????????.
• ? ????? ????? ${\displaystyle {V \over i}={R}}$ ????????.

???? ??????? [ ?????? ]

?? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????.?????? ????? ??????? ??????.

???:- ????? ??? ???????

?????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

?? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????.

???:-???????????,???????? ????????????

????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

???? ??????? ???? ??????? ???,???? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????. ?????? ???? ??????, ???? ?????, ????????? ????????,????????? ??? ??????? ???????.

• ???? ?????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????.

?????: ?? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ?????,??? ????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????? ???????(????,????????) ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????.

• ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????.

?????: ?? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???, ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????.????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????.

• ???? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????.

?????: ?? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ??? ?????, ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ???????????.

• ?? ???????? ???????? ????? ????????: (?? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ???????)

${\displaystyle {{R}\alpha \;l}}$..................................(1)

${\displaystyle {{R}\alpha \;{1 \over A}}}$..................................(2)

(1) (2) ????????? ?????,

${\displaystyle {{R}\alpha \;{l \over A}}}$

${\displaystyle {{R}=\rho \;{l \over A}}}$

${\displaystyle \rho \;}$ ?????? ????????????? ????? ?????????. ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????.

??????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

?????? ?????,?????? ????????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????.

???????? [ ?????? ]

????? ?????? ?????

${\displaystyle {{R}=\rho \;{l \over A}}}$

${\displaystyle \rho \;}$ ?????? ????????????? ????? ?????????. ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????.

${\displaystyle {\rho \;={R.A \over l}}}$

${\displaystyle {R}=}$ ??????, ${\displaystyle {A}=}$ ???? ????????? ????????.

????????? [ ?????? ]

${\displaystyle \rho \;}$= ${\displaystyle {{(ohm)}{(metre)^{2}} \over {(metre)}}}$= ??-?????

???????? [ ?????? ]

??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????. ?????? ????????? ${\displaystyle {{mho}/{metre}}}$ ?????? ?????? ???????? σ (??????) ?? ??????????.

${\displaystyle \sigma ={\frac {1}{\rho }}.\,\!}$

SI ?????? ?? ??????? ${\displaystyle {{mho}/{metre}}}$ ???? ?????/?????

?????? ???????? ??????? ????????, ???????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

??????? ??????,???????? ???????

???? ?????	???????/????	??????? ?????? ρ (Ω?m) 20 0 C ????	???????? σ (S/m) 20 0 C ????
1	???????	1.59×10 ?8	6.30×10 7
2	????	1.68×10 ?8	5.96×10 7
3	???????????	2.82×10 ?8	3.5×10 7
4	????????	5.60×10 ?8	1.79×10 7
5	?????	5.90×10 ?8	1.69×10 7
6	??????	6.99×10 ?8	1.43×10 7
7	?????	1.0×10 ?7	11.00×10 7
8	????????	1.06×10 ?7	9.43×10 6
9	????	1.43×10 ?7	6.99×10 6
10	????????	4.82×10 ?7	2.07×10 6

??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? [ ?????? ]

?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

?? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ??, ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ...... ? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???????.

???? ??????= ${\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {total} }=R_{1}+R_{2}+\cdots +R_{n}}$

?????????????? ???? ?????? [ ?????? ]

${\displaystyle {R_{1},R_{2},R_{3}}}$ ????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ? ?????? ????? ????????? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ${\displaystyle {I}}$ ???????? ???????. ???? ???? ???????? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ${\displaystyle {V}}$?? ???????????. ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ???? ${\displaystyle {V}}$, ${\displaystyle {R_{1}}}$ ?????? ????? ????? ???? ${\displaystyle {V_{1}}}$ ??????????? ????, ${\displaystyle {R_{2}}}$ ?????? ????? ????? ???? ${\displaystyle {V_{2}}}$ ??????????? ????, ${\displaystyle {R_{3}}}$ ?????? ????? ????? ???? ${\displaystyle {V_{3}}}$ ??????????? ?????? ???????????????. ????

${\displaystyle {V=V_{1}+V_{2}+V_{3}}}$ ????????.

?? ????? ???????
${\displaystyle {V=IR}}$
${\displaystyle {V_{1}=IR_{1}}}$
${\displaystyle {V_{2}=IR_{2}}}$
${\displaystyle {V_{3}=IR_{3}}}$ ????????
??????? ${\displaystyle {IR=IR_{1}+IR_{2}+IR_{3}}}$
${\displaystyle {IR=I(R_{1}+R_{2}+R_{3})}}$
${\displaystyle {R=R_{1}+R_{2}+R_{3}}}$

?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

??????? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ???????? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ??????.?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????.

???? ??????= : ${\displaystyle {1 \over R}={{1 \over R_{1}}+{1 \over R_{2}}+...........................{1 \over R_{n}}}}$

?????? ???????? ???? ?????? [ ?????? ]

${\displaystyle {R_{1},R_{2},R_{3}}}$ ????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ? ?????? ????? ????????? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????????? ???? ${\displaystyle {V}}$ ???????? ???????. ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ${\displaystyle {i}}$???????????????. ?????????? ???????? ??????? ${\displaystyle {i}}$, ${\displaystyle {R_{1}}}$ ?????? ????? ${\displaystyle {i_{1}}}$ ???????? ???????, ${\displaystyle {R_{2}}}$ ?????? ????? ${\displaystyle {i_{2}}}$ ???????? ???????, ${\displaystyle {R_{3}}}$ ?????? ????? ${\displaystyle {i_{3}}}$ ???????? ????????? ???????????????. ????

${\displaystyle {i=i_{1}+i_{2}+i_{3}}}$ ????????.

?? ????? ???????
${\displaystyle {i}={V \over R}}$
${\displaystyle {i_{1}}={V \over R_{1}}}$
${\displaystyle {i_{2}}={V \over R_{2}}}$
${\displaystyle {i_{3}}={V \over R_{3}}}$ ????????
??????? ${\displaystyle {{V \over R}={V \over R_{1}}+{V \over R_{2}}+{V \over R_{3}}}}$
${\displaystyle {{V \over R}=V({1 \over R_{1}}+{1 \over R_{2}}+{1 \over R_{3}})}}$
${\displaystyle {1 \over R}={{1 \over R_{1}}+{1 \over R_{2}}+{1 \over R_{3}}}}$

???????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? [ ?????? ]

????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????. ???????? ??????????? ????? ????? ??????????????? ?????????. ????????? ?? ??????????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????? ???? ??????? ???????????. ? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ??????. 1860 ?? ???? ??? ???????????? ???? ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ( ${\displaystyle {W}}$) ?? ???????? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {Q}}$) ???? ?????????? ????? ??????. ? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ? ????????? ???? ????? ??????.

?????????? ??????? ??????, ????????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????. ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????. ??? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????????. ? ?????????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????????????????.??????????? ??????? ???? ???? ????????? ??????? ????????.???????? ???? ??????????????? ????? ????????????? ??????? ????????.?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????. ???? ????-???????? ????? ??????.

???? ???????? ?? ??????????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

??????? [ ?????? ]

• ????? ????????? PQ ??? T ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? 5 ?????? ???????? ???, ??????????? 10 ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????????.
• ???? ??????? ???? ?????????? ${\displaystyle {m}}$?? ?????????. ???? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{1}\,}}$) ?? ????????.???? ???????????? 1 ?????/??????. ⁰ C ???????.

???????-1 [ ?????? ]

• ???? 5 ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????.
• ???????? ?? 10 ??????? ???? ??????????????. ???????? ??????? ( ${\displaystyle {Q}}$) ??, ???? ( ${\displaystyle {t}}$) ??? ???????????.
• ????? ???? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{2}\,}}$) ?? ???????????.
• ?? ???????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????????. ${\displaystyle {Q_{1}=m.s({\theta _{2}\,}-{\theta _{1}\,})}}$
• ??????? ??? ?????????? ??????????? 10 ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??????????????? 10 ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{3}\,}}$) ?? ????????.
• ?? ???????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????????. ${\displaystyle {Q_{2}=m.s({\theta _{3}\,}-{\theta _{1}\,})}}$
• ?? ???????? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{2}>Q_{1}}}$ ??? ??????? ?????. ?????? ?????

??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????? ???????.
${\displaystyle {Q}{\alpha \,}{R}}$..............................................(1)

???????-2 [ ?????? ]

• ???????-1 ??????? ???? ???? 5 ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ?? 10 ??????? ???? ??????????????. ???????? ??????? ( ${\displaystyle {Q}}$) ??, ???? ( ${\displaystyle {t}}$) ??? ????????? ???? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{2}\,}}$) ?? ???????????. ????? ???? ????????? ???????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{1}=m.s({\theta _{2}\,}-{\theta _{1}\,})}}$ ???????? ????????.
• ????? ?????? ( ${\displaystyle {R}}$), ???????? ??????? ( ${\displaystyle {i}}$) ?????????? ??????????? 20 ???????? ??????. ????? ???? ???? ??????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{4}\,}}$) ????????.
• ????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{3}=m.s({\theta _{4}\,}-{\theta _{1}\,})}}$ ????????? ????????.
• ?? ???????? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{3}>Q_{1}}}$ ??? ??????? ?????. ?????? ?????

?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????.
${\displaystyle {Q}{\alpha \,}{t}}$.....................................................(2)

???????-3 [ ?????? ]

• ???????-1 ??????? ???? ???? 5 ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ?? 10 ??????? ???? ??????????????. ???????? ??????? ( ${\displaystyle {Q}}$) ??, ???? ( ${\displaystyle {t}}$) ??? ????????? ???? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{2}\,}}$) ?? ???????????. ????? ???? ????????? ???????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{1}=m.s({\theta _{2}\,}-{\theta _{1}\,})}}$ ???????? ????????.
• ????? ?????? ( ${\displaystyle {R}}$), ???? ( ${\displaystyle {t}}$) ?????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ??????. ????? ???? ???? ????????? ( ${\displaystyle {\theta _{5}\,}}$) ?? ????????.
• ????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{4}=m.s({\theta _{5}\,}-{\theta _{1}\,})}}$ ????????? ????????.
• ?? ???????? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q_{4}>Q_{1}}}$ ??? ??????? ?????. ?????? ?????

???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????,???????? ?????? ????????? ??????????????? ???????.
${\displaystyle {Q}{\alpha \,}{i^{2}}}$..................................................(3)

?? (1),(2),(3) ????????? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q}{\alpha \,}{i^{2}.R.t}}$ ??? ???????????.

???????? ????? [ ?????? ]

???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????, ?????? ????????? ?????, ???????????? ?? ????? (???????? ???) ??? ??????. ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ? ??? ?????????. ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????????.

?? ?????????? ( ${\displaystyle {R}}$) ??????????? ???? ( ${\displaystyle {V}}$) ?? ???????????, ??? ( ${\displaystyle {q}}$) ????????? ?????????????, ( ${\displaystyle {i}}$) ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????. ??????? ????? ???( ${\displaystyle {W}}$) ??

${\displaystyle {W=V.q}}$ ?? ?????????.....................................(1)

???? ${\displaystyle {q=i.t}}$ , ????? ${\displaystyle {t=}}$?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????: ${\displaystyle {i=}}$???????? ???????, ???????

${\displaystyle {W=V.i.t}}$ ..................................................(2)

??? ??????? ????? ????? ??????????????? ???????????. ???????? ??????? ??????? ????. ${\displaystyle {V=i.R}}$ ?? ??????? (2) ?? ???????????????,

${\displaystyle {W={i^{2}}{R.t}}}$ ?? ?????. ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????.

???????? ?????????? [ ?????? ]

????,??????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????. ? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ??????????. ??????? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????????????????? ??? ????, ???????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???????????????.

^{???????? ??? ??????, ???????? ??????????? ?????????????.}

?? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ${\displaystyle {W}}$ ????? ${\displaystyle {t}}$ ?????? ??????, ? ????? ???????? ????????? ${\displaystyle {P}}$ ??,

${\displaystyle {P={W \over t}}}$ ????/????? ???? ????. ?? ????????.

?? ????????? ????? ${\displaystyle {P={Vit \over t}=Vi}}$

???? ????????? = ??????????? ???? X ???????? ???????.

${\displaystyle {P}}$ ????????????? ?? ???????? ????, ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ????????. ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?????????????.

???? [ ?????? ]

??????????? ??????? "????"

?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ?? ???? ?????.

?? ???????? ????? ???? = ?????? .???????.

???????? ?????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

???????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ??????, ???? ?????? ?? ?????????????.

?????, ????????? ?????,???? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????.???????? ??????? ????? ????????;

???? ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????????;

1 ???? ???? ${\displaystyle {(KW=)}}$ ${\displaystyle {10^{3}}}$ ?????? ${\displaystyle {(W)}}$

1 ???? ???? ${\displaystyle {(MW)=}}$ ${\displaystyle {10^{6}}}$ ?????? ${\displaystyle {(W)}}$

???? ?????-???????????? ????????? [ ?????? ]

?????? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ???? ??? ???????????? ?????????. ????? ?????, ???????? ???? ????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????????.

???????????? ???????? ??? ${\displaystyle {W}}$ ???????, ???????? ???? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q}}$ ????????? ???????? ???? ????????? ? ??????? ???? ?? ?????????????.

?? ????? ? ?????? ??????, ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????.
${\displaystyle {W}}$ ${\displaystyle {\alpha \,}}$ ${\displaystyle {Q}}$

${\displaystyle {W}}$ ${\displaystyle {=}}$ ${\displaystyle {JQ}}$
????? ${\displaystyle {J}}$ ?? "???? ???????? ?????????" ??????. ???? "???? ?????????" ??????.

?? ??????? ?????
${\displaystyle {J}}$${\displaystyle {=}}$${\displaystyle {W \over Q}}$

???????????? ???????? ??? ${\displaystyle {W}}$ ???????, ???????? ???? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q}}$ ????????? ???????? ${\displaystyle {J=4.18}}$ ??????/??????. ????????.

???????? ??? [ ?????? ]

${\displaystyle {R}}$ ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ??????? ${\displaystyle {V}}$ ??????????? ??????, ${\displaystyle {i}}$ ???????? ???????, ${\displaystyle {t}}$ ????????, ???????? ????? ????? ?????????? ? ??????? ?????? ??????????.

${\displaystyle {W=Vit}}$ ????
${\displaystyle {W={i^{2}}Rt}}$

? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ${\displaystyle {Q}}$ ?????,

${\displaystyle {Q}}$ ${\displaystyle {=}}$ ${\displaystyle {W \over J}}$ ${\displaystyle {=}}$ ${\displaystyle {{Vit} \over J}}$ ${\displaystyle {=}}$ ${\displaystyle {({i^{2}}Rt) \over J}}$

????? ${\displaystyle {J}}$ ????????? ????

${\displaystyle {Q{\alpha \,}{i^{2}}Rt}}$

???????? ???????? ???????? [ ?????? ]

?? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????????????, ????? ????? ?????????. ?? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????????? ????? ???????? ? ????? ?????, ????, ???? ?????????? ????? ??????. ? ????? ???????? ????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????????? ???????????.

???????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ??????? "??????" ???? ????.????.???? ${\displaystyle {(KWH)}}$

???????? ????? ??????????????? ?????????????, ? ???? ?????? ??? ???????????????? ????????? ??? ????????????.

????????????? = ????????? X ????=???? .???????

1 ???? ???? = 1 ???? X 1 ???
1 ???? ???? = 1 ???? X 60 X 60 ???????
1 ???? ???? = 3600 ????.???????

1 ???? ???? ???? = 1000 ???? ??????
1 ???? ???? ???? = 1000 X 3600 ???? ???????.
${\displaystyle {{1KWH}=36X{10^{5}}WH}}$

?? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????????? ${\displaystyle {KWH}}$(????????) ??? ???????????.

??????? ????? = ${\displaystyle {(WattageXno.of.hours.used.in.a.day.X30) \over 1000}}$

????? ???????? ???????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

????? ????? [ ?????? ]

????????????????? ??, ?????????????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????????, ???? ????? ????????? ?????????? ??, ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????.

???????? ???????? - ??????????? [ ?????? ]

???????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? [ ?????? ]

???????? ??????

?????????????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

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????? ????? [ ?????? ]

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???????? ????? [ ?????? ]

????????????? ????????? ????????-???????? ???????? ?????? ?????????????. ??? ???? ????? , ???? , ????????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????????. ?????? , ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????????? ????????????? ?????????????????. ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ???????????????. ???????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? .

????? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ????????????.

???????? [ ?????? ]

• ???????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????????? ???????????????. ?????? ?????????????? , ?????? , ???????, ??????????????? ????????. ?????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? 1870?? ???????? ??????????????. ??? ???? ???????, ???? ???? ????? ?????????? ??????????.
• ?????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? , ??????, ?????? ????????? ????, ???? ??? ??????? ????????????????????. ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????????????.
• ?????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????????????.
• ?????????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? , ?????? ???????, ?????? , ??????????? ????????????????.
• ?????? , ?????????? ???? ????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ????????????????.

???????? ????? ??????? 25 ????? [ ?????? ]

??????? ?????????? ????? ???????? 25???? ???? ??????????. ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????????. ??? ?????? ???????????? ????????????? ? ????? 60????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????????????.?? ??.2,275 .??? ??.60 ??????? ???? ????? ????????. ????? ??????????? ??? 27 ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????.? ??????? ???????? ??????????, ????????????? ?????? ????. (?????25.10.2009)

?????? ?????? ?????????? [ ?????? ]

???? ???????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ?????(????????) ??? ?????????? ????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????.

?????? [ ?????? ]

• ???? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ??????. ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ??? 2006?? ???? ????????.
• ?????? ???????? 60 ???????, ?????????????? 36 ?????? ?????? ????? ????????. ??? ????????? ???????????? ???????? (??????????)?? 11-15 ??????? ????? ??????????.
• ????? ???? ????????????? (55 ?????) ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????.
• ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????????. ?????? ????? ???????????? ????????
• ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? 2.25 ???????? ???????????. ??? ???? ??????????? ??????????? 1.25 ???????? ??????????.
• ?????? ???????????? ???????? ????????????? ????????????? ???????? 15 ???? ?????? ?????? ????????.

????????? ????? ??????? ( ? ?? ??? ) [ ?????? ]

????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ??? ?????????? ????? ???????? ????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??????????. ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ??? ????????? ????????.????? ????? ????? NO POWER ? ? ????????????? ??? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????. ??? ??? ????????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ???????. ??? ????????????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ????????? ???? ???????? ??????????? ????????????.????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????????????????????? ?????????????. ???? ???? ?? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????.....????? ???????????? ??? ??????????? ...???? ????? ???? ?????? ???????. ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????. ??? ????????????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??≪?? ???????????? ???? ? ???????? ???? ?????????????.???????? ?????????????? ????? (????),???????? ?????? ?????? 45???? ???? ????.?????? ???????? ??????????????????? ??????,???????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ????.??? ??????????? ?????????,??? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????????????.??????????????? ?????????????? ? ????????? ???? ??????? ?????????????????. ????? ? ????????? ??? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ??????????????????? ??????? ?????????.

??? ???? ?????? [ ?????? ]

• niti
• niti ?????????????? Niti vidyut vishleshan
• ?? .
• ?????????? ????? (????????) - ????? ??????? ??????????

?????? [ ?????? ]

???? ??????? [ ?????? ]

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