???????

????????????? ????
??????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???????.

???????
?????????? ?????: Cryogenian ? Present , 670?0Ma
???????? ????????? e
???? :
?????????

??????

?????????? ( Animals ), ????????? ( Animalia ) ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ( Metazoa ), ?????? ?????????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????. ??? ?????????????? ?????????, ????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????????? , ???????? ?????????????????? , ???????????? ??????????????????? ( en:Motility ), ???????????????? ??????????????, ????? ???????????????? ??????????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ( en:Blastula ) ??????????????? ????????????? ???????????.

?????? ?????? 7 ??????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????????????????????, ??????????? 1.5 ??????????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????????????????. ???????? ?????? 1 ????????? ?????? ????????????. ???????????? ????? 8.5 ????????????? (0.00033 ????????) ????? 33.6 ??????? (110 ???) ??? ????????????. ??????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????????? ???????????????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????. ???????? ???? ??? ( en:Food web ) ??????????? ??? ??????????. ????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????? ??????? ???? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????.

??????????? ???????? ????????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ??????. ???????? ???????????????? , ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ??????????????. ???????? ????????????????? ????? ????????????? , ??????? ??????????? , ???? ??? ????????????? ?????????? ????????????????????? ????????????.

????????????????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????????. ?????? 542 ????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ????, ?? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????????, ???? ???????????? ??????? ????????????. ??????? ????????????????? ??????? 6,331 ?????????? ???????? ??????????????; ??? 650 ????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????????????????? ????????????????? ?? ??????????????.

????? ?????? [ ???? ]

"??????" ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????. [3] ???????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????????? ????????????. [4] ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????????. ?????? ?????????????? ????????????, ???? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? [ ???????? ???? ] ???????????. [5] [6] [7] [8] ??????? ????????? ( Kingdom Animalia ) ??????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????????? ????????????. "??????????" ???? ???? ?????? ??????? μετα (??????, "???????" ????? ?????????? ??????????????????) ??????? ζ?? (z?ia, ζ?ον z?ion "???????" ??????? ?????) ????? ??????????????? ????????. [9] [10]

???????? [ ???? ]

??? ??????????????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ??????????. ?????????? ?? ?????????????? ??????????????????? ???????????. [11] ??? ???????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????. ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???????????? [12] ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????. [13] ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????. [12] [14] ????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ????? [15] ????? ?????????. ???? ????????????, ????? ???????????????? , ?????????? ??? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????????. ??? ?????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????.

????????? [ ???? ]

?????????? ???????? ???????????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????????????. ??????? ??????????? (???????????? ( Porifera ) ??????) ??????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????????? ??? ???????????????? ?????. ????????? ????????? ?????? ???????????????????????? ?????? , ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ????????. ??????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ???????????????. [16] ???? ??? ??????????????? ????? ?????????? ????????????? (?? ?????? ???????????) ????? ?????????????????. ????????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????? ( eumetazoans ) ????? ?????????????????.

???????????????, ???????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ???????  (1) ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ??????? (2).

????????? ????? ???????????? ??? ??? ??????? ????????????????? ????????????. [17] ??? ??? ??? ????????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??????????. ???????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????. ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????, ??? ????? ??????????? ??????????????????.

???????? ????????????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????????. ?????????????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????????. ??? ?????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????. ?????? ??? ???????????????? ??????????? ( en:fragmentation ) ????, ?????? ?????????? ( en:Budding ) ???? ?????????? ??? ??????????????. [18] [19]

??? ?????????????? ?????????? ( en:Blastula ) ??????? ??? ????????? ????? ???????????. ??? ??? ???????????????, ?????? ?????????????????????????? ??????????. ?????????????, ????????????? ??? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ??????????. ?? ??? ???????????, ????????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????????????? ?????????. ??? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ???????. ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????.

???? ??????? ?????????? ?????? [ ???? ]

????????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????????. ?????????? , ???? ???????? , ?????????????? , ????????, ????????? ????? ????????????????? ????????????????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???????????? ( en:Ditritivore ) [20] , ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ????? ???????? ????????. [21] ????????????????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????????. ??????? ??????? ????? ????????????? ??????????. [22]  

?????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????????? ???? ?????????? ?????. [23] ????? ???????????? ??????? (????????????? ??? ?????????? ????? ???????), ??? ??? ?? (????????????? ?????????? ????????) ??????? ???????????. ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????. ????? ???????? ????????? ??? ????????? ????????. ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ( detritivory ) ??? ?????. ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ??????? ?????? ???????????? ?????. ??? ?????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ??????. ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????. ???? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????????????????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????????. ??????? ???? ??????????????? ??????????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????????.

??? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ?????????????. ????????? ???????, ??? ???????????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????. ?????, ??? ?????????? ???????? ????? ????????????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????????. [24] [25]

????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ????????????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????????. ??? ??????? ???????????-????????? ?????????????? ( en:Anti-predator adaptation ) ???????????????. [26] [27]

???? ?????????? ????? ??? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????????. ????????? ????????????? ????? ??? ????????????? ??????????? ????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????? , ???? ???????????? ????????????. ??????? ???? (CO 2 ) ??????? ???? (H 2 O) ??????????????? ???????, ?????????????????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) ????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? (O 2 ) ?????????????. ???? ??????????? ???? ???????? ????????????? ?????????, ?????? ??? ??????????????. ?????????? ???? ????????? ??????????? (?????? ????????? ???????????? ????? ??? ?????????? ?????????), ?????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????????????. ??? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????????????????, ?????? ?????????????, ?????????????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????????, ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????????.

??? ????????? ??????? ???????? ????? [ ???? ]

?????????? ??????? ??? ??????????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????????????? ????? ??????????????. ???????? ??? ????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????????? ??????????????????????? ??????, ??? ????????????? ?????????????? ???? ????????????? ????? ???????????????????? ?????????????????? ( flagellates ). ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????????????. ????? ???????????????????????, ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ????????. ???? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? (flagellum) ???????? ????? ??????????????? ??????? ???? ????? ????????. ??? ??????????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????.

?????????? ???????????????????????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????????. ??? ?????? 610 ????????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????. ???????, ??? ??????? ???????????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????. ??? ???? ??????? ????????????? ??????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ??? ??? ??????????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????????; ??? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????? ??????. ??? ????, ???? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? 542 ????????? ????????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????????????? ??????? ??????????. ??????????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ???? ??????????, ???????? ????????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??? ??????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????????? ???????? ??????. ??????? ????????????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????????????? ( paleontologists ) ??????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ???????????? ??? ???? ??????????, ?????????? ?????? ????????? 1 ????????? ??????????????? ????????, ?????????? ???????????????? ???? ?????????????. ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????, ????????????? ????? ?????????????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? (?????? 5 ???? ?????) ??????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ???????? ????????????. [28] [29] [30]

?????????????? [ ???? ]

???? [ ???? ]

???????????? ????? ??????????? ( Balaenoptera musculus ) ?????? ?????????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????, ???? ??? 190 ?????? ??????? ????? 33.6 ??????? (110 ???) ??????? ??????. [31] [32] [33] ????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ( Loxodonta africana ). ???? ??? 12.25 ??????? [31] ????? 10.67 ??????? (35.0 ???) ???????. ?????? 73 ??? ???????? ???????? ??????????, ???????????????? ????? ???????????? ????????????. 39 ??????? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????????. [34] [35] ?? ?????????? ?????????. ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ??????. ???????? ???: ?????????? (?????????????? ?????????? ????????????) 20  ????????????????? ???? ??????. [36] ?????? ????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ?????. ??? ????????? ?????? ???? 8.5 ????????????????? ???? ?????. [37]

????????????? ????????? [ ???? ]

????????? ???????????, ??????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? (???????????, ??????? [38] ??????? ???? [39] ) ??????? ???????? ???? (??????????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ???????? [40] ) ???????? ????????? ?????????????. [41] ?????????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ???????????????. ????? ????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????. ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ??? ???????????????????. ?????? ??? ?????????? ?????????. ????????, ?????? 25,000?27,000 ?????? ????????????? ???????????????????. ????? ???????? ?????????????? ????? ????????????? ????????????? ?????????????? 10,000?20,000 ????????. [42] ???????????? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ???????????, ??????? ????????? ????? ?????????-?????? ???????????????? ?????-2011 ??? ?????? 7.77 ?????????? ???????????????. [43] [44] [a]

?????? ??????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ????????? ????????
????????? wasp 1,257,000 [41] 1,000,000
(?????????) [46] 		>40,000
(?????????????????) [47] 		94,000 [38] ??? [39] >45,000 [b] [40]
????????? snail 85,000 [41]
107,000 [48] 		35,000 [48] 60,000 [48] 5,000 [38]
12,000 [48] 		??? [39] >5,600 [40]
?????????? green spotted frog facing right >70,000 [41] [49] 23,000 [50] 13,000 [50] 18,000 [38]
9,000 [50] 		??? 40
(????????) [40] [51]
??????? ????????? 29,500 [41] ??? [52] ??? [39] 1,300 [38] ??? [39]

3,000?6,500 [53]

>40,000 [40]

4,000?25,000 [53]

????????????? 25,000 [41] ??? (????) [39] 4,000 [42] 2,000 [38] 11,000 [42] 14,000 [42]
????????????????? 17,000 [41] ??? (????) [39] ??? [39] 1,750 [38] ??? 400 [40]
???????????? Table coral 16,000 [41] ??? [39] ??? (???) [39] ??? [39] >1,350
(??????????) [40]
????????? 10,800 [41] ??? [39] 200?300 [38] ??? ??? [54]
??????????? 7,500 [41] 7,500 [41] ??? [39]
?????????? 6,000 [41] ??? [39] 60?80 [38] ???
?????????? 2,000 [41] >400 [55] 2,000 [38] ???
???????????? 1,335 [41] ??? [56]
(????? ?????????) 		??? ??? ???
???????????????? 794 [41] ??? [56] ??? ???
?????????????? 430 [41] ??? [56] ???
??????????? 354 [41] ???
(????????? ???????) [56] 		???
(??? ???????, ????????) [57] 		??? ???
(?????????????) [56] 		???
(???? ????? ????????) [56]
?????????????? 396 [41]
(30,000 ?????????????) [56] 		??? [56] ???
???????????? 196 [41] ??? (??????) [56] ???
???????? 187 [41] ??? [56] ???
????????? 187 [41] ??? [56] ???
?????????? 186 [41] ??? [56] ???
????????????? 172 [41] ??? [56] ??? ???
?????????? 126 [41] ??? [56] ???
??????????? 107 [41] ???
???????????????? 97 [41] ??? (????) [56] ???
?????????? 30 [41] ???(????) [56] ???
??????????????? 29 [41] ???
???????????? 20 [41] ??? [56] ???
???????? 16 [41] ??? [56] ???
???????????????? 1 [56] ??? (????) [56] ???
??????????? 1 [41] ??? [56] ???
2013??? ??????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ????????????: 1,525,728

????????? ????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ( Porifera ) [ ???? ]

?????? ?????? ???? ????????. ?????????????. ?????? ??????????????. ?????????????: ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????.

??????????? (????????????) ??????????? ??? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ???? ????? ??????????? ??????. ???? ??????????????? ???, ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ????????????????. ???????? ??????? ????????????. ????? ???? ???????????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????????????????? ??????????. ??????????? ???????????? . ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????????? ????? ???? ?????????????. ??????? 2008 ??? ??????? 21 ????????? [58] 150 ???????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ???? ??????????? ???? ????????????, ????????????? ???????? 21 ???????????, ??????????? ????????? ?????????? ????? ??????????????????.

???????????? ???????? ????????? ?????, ????? ??? ??????????? ?????????????????????. ??? ??????? ( ectoderm ) ??????? ????????? ( endoderm ) ???? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????. ?????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????????. ?????????, ???? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ( diploblastic ) ?????????? ????? ?????????????????. ??????????? ??????????????? ????????? ?????????. ????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????????.

?????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ???????????????. ???? ???????????, ??? ????????? ???????????????? ???????????. ???????????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????. ?????? ????????? ???????? ??????????. ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????-??????????????????? ???????????. ????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????????????. ??????? ??? ?????? ???????????? ???????????. ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???????????, ?????? ( coelom ) ?????? ?????????? ( pseudocoelom ) ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????. ??????? ???? ?????????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ????? ? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ( echinoderm ) ????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????. ??? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????????????? ???? ???????????? ??????????????.

??????????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ????????????????. ????????? ????????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????????? ????????????.

????????????????? [ ???? ]

????????????????? ??????????????? ????? ????????????? ??? ???????????????? ??????? ?? ???????? ?????????????. ?????????? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????. ???????, ????????????????? ????? ??????? (?????????????) ????? ?????????????????, ??????????? ?????? ??????????. ??????????????????? ??? ????????? ?????????. ????????????????? ??? ????????????????? ???, ???????????? ?????? ???? ??????????. ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ?????????????.

??????????? ??????????????????? ????????????????? ???????????, ????????????? ??????????? ???????? ????????????. ??????????????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ( Echinodermata ) ??????? ????????????????? (Chordate)??????. ????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????, ????????? ????, ???? ????????, ??????? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????. ????????? ???????????? ????? ??????????? ????????????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????????????. ???????? ???? , ??????? ?????????, ????? , ??????? , ??????? ??????????? ?????? ????????.

??????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????????? ??????????. ????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????.

??????????? [ ???? ]

??????-????? ?????????????

???????????????? ??????????????? ?????. ??? ?????????????? ?????? ?????????? ( ecdysis ) ????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????????????. ??????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ( Arthropoda ) ?????? ??????????. ????? ????????? , ?????????? , ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ???????. ???? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ??? ????????????????? ???? ???????????? ???????????? ????????????? ??????????. ????????? ??????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????? ( Arthropoda ) ????????? ??????????. ??? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??????????.

???????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????????????? ???????????????????. ??? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????. ???????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????????, ????????? ???? ????????? ??????? ?????????????? ????????????????. ????????? ?????????? ????????????. ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????, ??????? ??????????, ???????????, ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????. ???? ????????? ?????????? ( pseudocoelom ) ????? ?????????????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ??????????.

????????????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????????????????. ?????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????.

???????????? [ ???? ]

????????????? ???????????

???????????????? ???????????????? ( Platyhelminthes ), ???????????????? ???? ????????? ???????. ??? ??????????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????. ????? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????????????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????????. [59]

????????? ??????? ????????? ( flukes ) ??????? ??????????????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ????????????. ??????? ????????? ?????????????? . [60]

??? ???????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ( pseudocoelomate )???? ???????????. ???????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????. ??? ????????? ????????????? ????? ?????????? ??????????. ???????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????-??? ?????????, ?????????????, ?????????????, ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????. [61] ???? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ????????? ??????????. ??????????? ??? ????????? ( Gnathifera ) ????? ?????????????????.

?????????????? [ ???? ]

????? ?????, ???????? ????????

?????????????? ???????????? ( Mollusca ) ??????? ????????????????? ( Annelida ) ???? ?????? ??? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ????????????????????. [62] [63] ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????? ???????????, ????????, ????????????, ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???????. ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????????????. ???? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????????????. ????? ????????????????? ( Annelida ) ???????????????? ( Arthropoda ) ???????????????? ???????????????. [64] ????????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???????. [65]

?????????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????, ??????????, ??????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?? ????????? ????????????? ?????????????????. [66] ??? ?????????? ??????????????? ????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????. [67] ????? ??????? ??? ???????????? ???????, [68] ??? ??????????????? ???????????? ???????, ??? ???????????? ( Mollusca ) ??????? ????????????????????? ( Annelida ) ???????????? ??????? ??????????????. [69] [70] ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ???????, ?????????????, ????????, ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ????????????. [71]

?????? ??????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????, ????????????? ??? ???? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????, ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ??????????, ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????????. ??????????? ????????????? ????? ????????, ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ( metazoan ) ?????? ???????????? ???????????. ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????. ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????. ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????, ???????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????????????. ???? ???????????????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????????? ????????. ???????????????????????? ???? ??? ???????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????, ???????????????, ??????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ????? ?????. ?????????? ???? ??????? ????????????????? ????????, ???????????????? ??????????? 1500 ?????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????????, ???????????????, ??????? ??????????????????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????. [72]

?????????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ??? ????????, ??????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????????????????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ?????????????. [73]

?????????? ??????????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????????? ??? ( Mus musculus ) ??????? ??????????????? ( Danio rerio ) ?????? ???????.

???? ??????????????? ????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ???????

??????????? ?????? [ ???? ]

????????????????, ????????????? ???? ????? ??????????????? ???????????? ?????????? [?] ??????? ?????? (????????, ???????????????) ??????? ???????? ????? ??????????. ??????? ?????????? ??????????????? (???????, 2 ???????, ?????????? ??????????) ???????? ?????? ??????? (???????, 4 ???????, ????????? ???? ??????????) ??????? ???????????? (??????? ?????, ?? ???????, ????????? ?????) ??????????? (??????? ?????, ??????? ?????, ??????? ?????) ????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????? ?? ????????????????. ????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????????. ??? ????????? ??????, ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?????????. ?????? ??? ??????????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????????????. ??? ??????????? ??? ????????, ??????? ???????. [74]

1758-??, ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????. [75] ????? ???? ???????????, ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????. ??? ?????????, ?????????, ???????, ??????? ??????, ??????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?? ????????????? ??????????????. ?????? ??????? ????????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????????. ?????? ????????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ??????. ??????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????????????????????. ?????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????????????????????? ???????????. ????????, ?????????? ??? ???? ?????????? ( protozoa ) , ??? ??????? ????????, ??????????? ?????????? ???? ???????????. ????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ???????????????.

????????? ????? ?????????????, ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????, ???????? ( Vermes ), ????????? ( Insecta ), ??????? ( Pisces ), ???? ??? ???????? ( Amphibia ), ????????? ( Aves ), ??????? ????????? (Mammalia) ???? ????????????? ????????????????????. ??? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ( Chordata ) ??????? ????? ???????????? ???????????????. ?? ??? ????????? ?????????????? ??????. ???????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ????????? ???????????????. ??????? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????????? ??????.

??????? ?????????? [ ???? ]

  • ??????? ??????
  • ????? ????????
  • ???????????? ?????????? ????????
  • ??????????? ????????????? ??? ???????????? ????????
  • ??????

??????????? [ ???? ]

  1. ↑ The application of DNA barcoding to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000 insect species for Canada alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges ( Cecidomyiidae ). [45]
  2. ↑ Not including parasitoid s. [40]

??????????? [ ???? ]

  1. ↑ Harzsch, S.; Muller, C. H. (18 May 2007). "A new look at the ventral nerve centre of Sagitta : implications for the phylogenetic position of Chaetognatha (arrow worms) and the evolution of the bilaterian nervous system" . Frontiers in Zoology 4 : 14. doi : 10.1186/1742-9994-4-14 . ??????? : 17511857 .  
  2. ↑ Annelid phylogeny and status of Sipuncula and Echiura
  3. ↑ Cresswell, Julia (2010). The Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press . ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-19-954793-7 . 'having the breath of life', from anima 'air, breath, life'.
  4. ↑ "Animal". The American Heritage Dictionary (4th). (2006). Houghton Mifflin .  
  5. ↑ "animal" . English Oxford Living Dictionaries . Archived from the original on 26 July 2018 . ????????????? ???? 26 July 2018 .
  6. ↑ Boly, Melanie; Seth, Anil K.; Wilke, Melanie; Ingmundson, Paul; Baars, Bernard; Laureys, Steven; Edelman, David; Tsuchiya, Naotsugu (2013). "Consciousness in humans and non-human animals: recent advances and future directions" . Frontiers in Psychology 4 : 625. doi : 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00625 . ??????? : 24198791 .  
  7. ↑ "The use of non-human animals in research" . Royal Society . Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . ????????????? ???? 7 June 2018 .
  8. ↑ "Nonhuman definition and meaning" . Collins English Dictionary . Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . ????????????? ???? 7 June 2018 .
  9. ↑ " Metazoan "..  
  10. ↑ " Metazoa "..   and further meta- (sense 1) ????????????? 30 ???? 2022 at the ??????? ????????? and -zoa ????????????? 30 ???? 2022 at the ??????? ????????? .
  11. ↑ National Zoo. "Panda Classroom" (in English).  
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Davidson, Michael W. "Animal CellStructure" . Archived from the original on 20 September 2007 . ????????????? ???? 20 September 2007 .
  13. ↑ Jennifer Bergman. "Heterotrophs" (in English).  
  14. ↑ Douglas AE, Raven JA (January 2003). "Genomes at the interface between bacteria and organelles" . Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 358 (1429): 5?17; discussion 517?8. doi : 10.1098/rstb.2002.1188 . ??????? : 12594915 .  
  15. ↑ Saupe, S.G. "Concepts of Biology" (in English).  
  16. ↑ Hillmer, Gero; Lehmann, Ulrich (1983). Fossil Invertebrates . Translated by J. Lettau. CUP Archive. p. 54. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-521-27028-1 . Archived from the original on 7 May 2016 . ????????????? ???? 8 January 2016 .
  17. ↑ Knobil, Ernst (1998). Encyclopedia of reproduction, Volume 1 . Academic Press. p.  315 . ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-12-227020-8 . {{ cite book }} : no-break space character in |page= at position 68 ( help )
  18. ↑ Adiyodi, K.G.; Hughes, Roger N.; Adiyodi, Rita G. (July 2002). Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, Volume 11, Progress in Asexual Reproduction . Wiley. p. 116. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-471-48968-9 .
  19. ↑ Schatz, Phil. "Concepts of Biology | How Animals Reproduce" . OpenStax College. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018 . ????????????? ???? 5 March 2018 . {{ cite web }} : no-break space character in |title= at position 20 ( help )
  20. ↑ Marchetti, Mauro; Rivas, Victoria (2001). Geomorphology and environmental impact assessment . Taylor & Francis. p. 84. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-90-5809-344-8 .
  21. ↑ Levy, Charles K. (1973). Elements of Biology . Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 108. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-390-55627-1 .
  22. ↑ Simpson, Alastair G.B; Roger, Andrew J. (2004). "The real 'kingdoms' of eukaryotes". Current Biology 14 (17): R693?696. doi : 10.1016/j.cub.2004.08.038 . ??????? : 15341755 .  
  23. ↑ Begon, M.; Townsend, C.; Harper, J. (1996). Ecology: Individuals, populations and communities (Third ed.). Blackwell Science. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-86542-845-4 .
  24. ↑ Stevens, Alison N. P. (2010). "Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism" . Nature Education Knowledge 3 (10): 36 ??? ????????? ??????? 30 September 2017 ?????. ?????????????. . https://web.archive.org/web/20170930230324/http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/predation-herbivory-and-parasitism-13261134 . ??????? ????: 12 February 2018 .  
  25. ↑ Jervis, M. A.; Kidd, N. A. C. (November 1986). "Host-Feeding Strategies in Hymenopteran Parasitoids" . Biological Reviews 61 (4): 395?434. doi : 10.1111/j.1469-185x.1986.tb00660.x . https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_1986-11_61_4/page/395 .  
  26. ↑ Allen, Larry Glen; Pondella, Daniel J.; Horn, Michael H. (2006). Ecology of marine fishes: California and adjacent waters . University of California Press. p.  428 . ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-520-24653-9 .
  27. ↑ Caro, Tim (2005). Antipredator Defenses in Birds and Mammals . University of Chicago Press. pp.  1 ?6 and passim.
  28. ↑ Seilacher, A., Bose, P.K. and Pfluger, F. (1998). "Animals More Than 1 Billion Years Ago: Trace Fossil Evidence from India" . Science 282 (5386): 80?83. doi : 10.1126/science.282.5386.80 . ??????? : 9756480 . http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/282/5386/80 . ??????? ????: 2007-08-20 .  
  29. ↑ Matz, Mikhail V.; Tamara M. Frank, N. Justin Marshall, Edith A. Widder and Sonke Johnsen (2008-12-09). "Giant Deep-Sea Protist Produces Bilaterian-like Traces" . Current Biology (Elsevier Ltd) 18 (18): 1?6. doi : 10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.028 . http://www.biology.duke.edu/johnsenlab/pdfs/pubs/sea%20grapes%202008.pdf . ??????? ????: 2008-12-05 .  
  30. ↑ Reilly, Michael (2008-11-20). "Single-celled giant upends early evolution" . MSNBC ??? ????????? ??????? 2009-02-18 ?????. ?????????????. . https://web.archive.org/web/20090218155637/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27827279/ . ??????? ????: 2008-12-05 .  
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats . Enfield, Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-85112-235-9 .
  32. ↑ Davies, Ella (20 April 2016). "The longest animal alive may be one you never thought of" . BBC Earth . Archived from the original on 19 March 2018 . ????????????? ???? 1 March 2018 .
  33. ↑ "Largest mammal" . Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 31 January 2018 . ????????????? ???? 1 March 2018 .
  34. ↑ Mazzetta, Gerardo V.; Christiansen, Per; Farina, Richard A. (2004). "Giants and Bizarres: Body Size of Some Southern South American Cretaceous Dinosaurs". Historical Biology 16 (2?4): 71?83. doi : 10.1080/08912960410001715132 .  
  35. ↑ Curtice, Brian (2020). "Society of Vertebrate Paleontology" (PDF) . Vertpaleo.org .
  36. ↑ Fiala, Ivan (10 July 2008). "Myxozoa" . Tree of Life Web Project. Archived from the original on 1 March 2018 . ????????????? ???? 4 March 2018 .
  37. ↑ Kaur, H.; Singh, R. (2011). "Two new species of Myxobolus (Myxozoa: Myxosporea: Bivalvulida) infecting an Indian major carp and a cat fish in wetlands of Punjab, India" . Journal of Parasitic Diseases 35 (2): 169?176. doi : 10.1007/s12639-011-0061-4 . ??????? : 23024499 .  
  38. ↑ 38.00 38.01 38.02 38.03 38.04 38.05 38.06 38.07 38.08 38.09 Balian, E. V.; Leveque, C.; Segers, H.; Martens, K. (2008). Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment . Springer. p. 628. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-1-4020-8259-7 .
  39. ↑ 39.00 39.01 39.02 39.03 39.04 39.05 39.06 39.07 39.08 39.09 39.10 39.11 39.12 39.13 Hogenboom, Melissa. "There are only 35 kinds of animal and most are really weird" . BBC Earth. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018 . ????????????? ???? 2 March 2018 .
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 40.5 40.6 40.7 Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites . Princeton University Press. p.  6 . ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-691-12085-0 .
  41. ↑ 41.00 41.01 41.02 41.03 41.04 41.05 41.06 41.07 41.08 41.09 41.10 41.11 41.12 41.13 41.14 41.15 41.16 41.17 41.18 41.19 41.20 41.21 41.22 41.23 41.24 41.25 41.26 41.27 41.28 41.29 41.30 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Animal biodiversity: An update of classification and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)" . Zootaxa 3703 (1): 5. doi : 10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.3 ??? ????????? ??????? 24 April 2019 ?????. ?????????????. . https://web.archive.org/web/20190424154926/https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/download/zootaxa.3703.1.3/4273 . ??????? ????: 2 March 2018 .  
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Felder, Darryl L.; Camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity . Texas A&M University Press. p. 1111. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-1-60344-269-5 .
  43. ↑ "How many species on Earth? About 8.7 million, new estimate says" . 24 August 2011. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018 . ????????????? ???? 2 March 2018 .
  44. ↑ Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G.B.; Worm, Boris (2011-08-23). Mace, Georgina M.. ed. "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?" . PLOS Biology 9 (8): e1001127. doi : 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 . ??????? : 21886479 .  
  45. ↑ Hebert, Paul D.N.; Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Zakharov, Evgeny V.; Telfer, Angela C.; Levesque-Beaudin, Valerie; Milton, Megan A.; Pedersen, Stephanie; Jannetta, Paul et al . (1 August 2016). "Counting animal species with DNA barcodes: Canadian insects" . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 371 (1702): 20150333. doi : 10.1098/rstb.2015.0333 . ??????? : 27481785 .  
  46. ↑ Stork, Nigel E. (January 2018). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?". Annual Review of Entomology 63 (1): 31?45. doi : 10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348 . ??????? : 28938083 .   Stork notes that 1m insects have been named, making much larger predicted estimates.
  47. ↑ Poore, Hugh F. (2002). "Introduction" . Crustacea: Malacostraca . Zoological catalogue of Australia. Vol. 19.2A. CSIRO Publishing . pp. 1?7. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-643-06901-5 .
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 48.3 Nicol, David (June 1969). "The Number of Living Species of Molluscs". Systematic Zoology 18 (2): 251?254. doi : 10.2307/2412618 .  
  49. ↑ Uetz, P.. "A Quarter Century of Reptile and Amphibian Databases" . Herpetological Review 52 : 246?255 ??? ????????? ??????? 21 February 2022 ?????. ?????????????. . https://web.archive.org/web/20220221154655/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352462027_A_Quarter_Century_of_Reptile_and_Amphibian_Databases . ??????? ????: 2 October 2021 .  
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie L.; Wilson, Don E.; Wilson, Edward O. (1996). Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources . Joseph Henry Press. p. 90. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-309-52075-1 .
  51. ↑ Burton, Derek; Burton, Margaret (2017). Essential Fish Biology: Diversity, Structure and Function . Oxford University Press. pp. 281?282. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-19-878555-2 . Trichomycteridae ... includes obligate parasitic fish. Thus 17 genera from 2 subfamilies, Vandelliinae ; 4 genera, 9spp. and Stegophilinae ; 13 genera, 31 spp. are parasites on gills (Vandelliinae) or skin (stegophilines) of fish.
  52. ↑ Sluys, R. (1999). "Global diversity of land planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Terricola): a new indicator-taxon in biodiversity and conservation studies". Biodiversity and Conservation 8 (12): 1663?1681. doi : 10.1023/A:1008994925673 .  
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Pandian, T. J. (2020). Reproduction and Development in Platyhelminthes . CRC Press. pp. 13?14. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-1-000-05490-3 . Archived from the original on 26 July 2020 . ????????????? ???? 19 May 2020 .
  54. ↑ Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (2015). Parasite Diversity and Diversification . Cambridge University Press. p. 44. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-1-107-03765-6 . Archived from the original on 12 December 2018 . ????????????? ???? 2 March 2018 .
  55. ↑ Fontaneto, Diego. "Marine Rotifers | An Unexplored World of Richness" (PDF) . JMBA Global Marine Environment. pp. 4?5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2018 . ????????????? ???? 2 March 2018 .
  56. ↑ 56.00 56.01 56.02 56.03 56.04 56.05 56.06 56.07 56.08 56.09 56.10 56.11 56.12 56.13 56.14 56.15 56.16 56.17 56.18 56.19 56.20 Hickman, Cleveland P.; Keen, Susan L.; Larson, Allan; Eisenhour, David J. (2018). Animal Diversity (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education, New York. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-1-260-08427-6 .
  57. ↑ "First report of marine horsehair worms (Nematomorpha: Nectonema) parasitic in isopod crustaceans". Parasitol Res 120 (7): 2357?2362. 2021. doi : 10.1007/s00436-021-07213-9 .  
  58. ↑ Dunn et al. 2008)."Broad phylogenomic sampling improves resolution of the animal tree of life". Nature 06614.
  59. ↑ Ruiz-Trillo, I.; Ruiz-Trillo, Inaki; Riutort, Marta; Littlewood, D. Timothy J.; Herniou, Elisabeth A.; Baguna, Jaume (March 1999). "Acoel Flatworms: Earliest Extant Bilaterian Metazoans, Not Members of Platyhelminthes". Science 283 (5409): 1919?1923. doi : 10.1126/science.283.5409.1919 . ??????? : 10082465 .  
  60. ↑ Todaro, Antonio. "Gastrotricha: Overview" . Gastrotricha: World Portal . University of Modena & Reggio Emilia . ????????????? ???? 2008-01-26 .
  61. ↑ Kristensen, Reinhardt Møbjerg (July 2002). "An Introduction to Loricifera, Cycliophora, and Micrognathozoa" . Integrative and Comparative Biology (Oxford Journals) 42 (3): 641?651. doi : 10.1093/icb/42.3.641 . http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/42/3/641 . ??????? ????: 2008-01-26 .  
  62. ↑ "Biodiversity: Mollusca" . The Scottish Association for Marine Science. Archived from the original on 2006-07-08 . ????????????? ???? 2007-11-19 .
  63. ↑ Russell, Bruce J. (Writer), Denning, David (Writer).(2000). Branches on the Tree of Life: Annelids [VHS].BioMEDIA ASSOCIATES.
  64. ↑ Eernisse, Douglas J.; Eernisse, Douglas J.; Albert, James S.; Anderson , Frank E. (1992). "Annelida and Arthropoda are not sister taxa: A phylogenetic analysis of spiralean metazoan morphology" . Systematic Biology 41 (3): 305?330. doi : 10.2307/2992569 . https://archive.org/details/sim_systematic-biology_1992-09_41_3/page/305 . ??????? ????: 2007-11-19 .  
  65. ↑ Eernisse, Douglas J.; Kim, Chang Bae; Moon, Seung Yeo; Gelder, Stuart R.; Kim, Won (September 1996). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Annelids, Molluscs, and Arthropods Evidenced from Molecules and Morphology" ( [ ??????????? ??????? ] ? Scholar search ). Journal of Molecular Evolution (New York: Springer) 43 (3): 207?215. doi : 10.1007/PL00006079 . http://www.springerlink.com/content/xptr6ga3ettxnmb9/ . ??????? ????: 2007-11-19 .   [ ??????????? ??????? ]
  66. ↑ Collins, Allen G. (1995), The Lophophore , University of California Museum of Paleontology {{ citation }} : Check |author-link= value ( help ) ; External link in |author-link= ( help )
  67. ↑ Adoutte, A.; Adoutte, Andre; Balavoine, Guillaume; Lartillot, Nicolas; Lespinet, Olivier; Prud'homme, Benjamin; de Rosa, Renaud (25 April 2000). "The new animal phylogeny: Reliability and implications" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (9): 4453?4456. doi : 10.1073/pnas.97.9.4453 . ??????? : 10781043 . http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/9/4453 . ??????? ????: 2007-11-19 .  
  68. ↑ Passamaneck, Yale J. (2003), "Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution", Molecular Phylogenetics of the Metazoan Clade Lophotrochozoa (PDF) , p. 124 [ ??????????? ??????? ]
  69. ↑ Adoutte, A.; Sundberg, Per; Turbevilleb, J. M.; Lindha, Susanne (September 2001). "Phylogenetic relationships among higher nemertean (Nemertea) taxa inferred from 18S rDNA sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 20 (3): 327?334. doi : 10.1006/mpev.2001.0982 .  
  70. ↑ "The mitochondrial genome of the Sipunculid Phascolopsis gouldii supports its association with Annelida rather than Mollusca" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (2): 127?137. February 2002. ??????????? ?? ????? ??? : 0022-2844 . ??????? : 11801741 . http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/19/2/127.pdf . ??????? ????: 2007-11-19 .  
  71. ↑ Nielsen, Claus (April 2001). "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta: ‘Moss’ Animals)" . Encyclopedia of Life Sciences (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd). doi : 10.1038/npg.els.0001613 . http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/emrw/9780470015902/els/article/a0001613/current/abstract . ??????? ????: 2008-01-19 .  
  72. ↑ N.H. Putnam, et al. (July 2007). "Sea anemone genome reveals ancestral eumetazoan gene repertoire and genomic organization". Science 317 (5834): 86?94. doi : 10.1126/science.1139158 . ??????? : 17615350 .  
  73. ↑ Wang, X.; Wang, Xiujuan; Lavrov Dennis V. (2006-10-27). "Mitochondrial Genome of the Homoscleromorph Oscarella carmela (Porifera, Demospongiae) Reveals Unexpected Complexity in the Common Ancestor of Sponges and Other Animals" . Molecular Biology and Evolution (Oxford Journals) 24 (2): 363?373. doi : 10.1093/molbev/msl167 . ??????? : 17090697 . http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/24/2/363 . ??????? ????: 2008-01-19 .  
  74. ↑ Leroi, Armand Marie (2014). The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science . Bloomsbury. pp.  111 ?119, 270?271. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-1-4088-3622-4 .
  75. ↑ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in ???????) ( 10th  ed.). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). Archived from the original on 10 October 2008 . ????????????? ???? 22 September 2008 .

????????? [ ???? ]

  • ?????? ???????. Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla (???????? ???????). ???????????? ??????????? ?????, 2001.
  • ??? ????????-???????. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment . (5th edition). ???????????? ??????????? ????? , 1997.

??? ?????????? [ ???? ]

" https://ta.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=???????&oldid=3878075 " ????????? ?????????????????