한국   대만   중국   일본 
?????? - ????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ????

??????

????????????? ????
??????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???????.
??????
1 H
-
↑
H
↓
Li
- ← ?????? → He
???????
??????? ????

???? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ???????
?????? ????????
?????, ???????? , ??? ??????, H, 1
?????????? , ???? ????? , ???? 1 ,  1 , s
???? ??? ????
(???????????) 		1.00784 u
????????? ??????? 1s 1
1
??????
????????????? ????? ????????? [1] [2] (1766)
??????????? ????????? ???????? [3] (1783)
????????? ????????
????????? 13.99  K ,??259.16 °C,??434.49 °F
???????? 20.271 K,??252.879 °C,??423.182 °F
???????? ?????? 13.8033 K (-259°C), 7.041 kPa
???????? 32.938 K, 1.2858 MPa
???????? ????? ?????? ( H 2 ) 0.117 ??. ???? · ???? ?1
????????????? ????? ?????? ( H 2 ) 0.904 ??.????·???? ?1
??????? ?????? ( H 2 ) 28.836 ????.???? ?1 ·K ?1
??? ????????
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K)           20
????? ????????
????????????????? 2.20 (?????? ????????)
????????? ??? 31±5 pm
??????? ?????? ??? 120 ????
???? ??????? hexagonal
ஐதரசன் has a hexagonal crystal structure
????? ??????? diamagnetic [4]
????? ???????? ????? 0.1805 W·m ?1 ·K ?1
??????? ????? 1310 ??.?? ?1 ]]
??? ???????? ????????????? (?????????)
????????? ???????: ?????? ??? ??????????
iso NA ????????? DM DE ( MeV ) DP
1 H 99.98% 1 H ??? 0 ???????????? ??????? ?????????????
2 H 0.02% 2 H ??? 1 ???????????? ??????? ??????????
3 H trace 12.32 y β − 0.01861 3 He
· ??

?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? H ???? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ??? ?????????? . ??? ???????, ???? ???, ???????, ?????? ????? ?? ?????????? ??????????????. ????????????? ??? ??? 1, ??? ??? 1.008. ????????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????????? ????????????. ????????????? ???? ????????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????????????. ?????????? ????? ????????? ???????? 75% ??????????? ???????? ????????????????? ????????????? [5] . ??? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????????????. 1H ???? ???????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? (?????????) ?????. ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????????? (??????????) ??????? ?????????.

???????????, ???????? ????? ???????????? , ???????, ????????, ??????, ??????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????. ????????? ????????? (????????) ??????? ?????????. ??? ????? ???????? ( univalent ) ???????, ?????? ????? ???????? ???????, ???? (H 2 ) ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????.

???????, ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ??????????? ??? ???????????, ????? ???? ?????????????????? ?????. ???????? ?????? ????? ?????????????,???? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????????. ???? ?????????????? ??????????? 0.5 ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????????. ??????? , ?????? , ?????? , ?????????? ????? ???? ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????. ???????? ?????????? ????????? 1 ???????????? ??????????????? 10.82 ???????????? ??????? ?????????????. ?????????? 75% ?????? ?????? ??????????????. [6] ??????, ?????? ????????????, ??????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ??????????? 75% ???????? ???? ??????????? ????????????????. [7] ??? ????, ??????? ??????? ( organic ) ??????????, (?????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ( buckminsterfullerene ) ????? ?????????????? ?????????) ??????? ??????? ??????????????? ???? ???????????. ?????????????, ??????????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ??????????, ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????. ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????????????? ???????? ??????????.

???????? ??????????? ?????

??? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ??? ???????????? ???????????????. ???????? ????????? ??????????????, ??? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????, ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????????, ????????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????????.

?????? [ ???? ]

???? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ????????????. ??? ??????????? ????????,???? ???????? ??????. ??????? ???????? ??????????? ( Paracelsus ) ??????? 16-??? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????. 1671 ??? ???????, ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???????????????????? [8] [9]

1766 ??? ?????? ?????????? ( Henry Cavendish ) ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????????. [10] ??? ??? ?????? ( highly combustible ) ???? ??????????????. ????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????????. "??????" ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? "???" ??????? "????????????" ??????? ??????. ???????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????.

???????? [ ???? ]

?????? ???? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????????, ???????????? ??? ?????????????? ???? ??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ??????????????????. ??????????????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ????? ????????????????????. ??????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????.

???? ???????????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????????????. ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????????. ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????????. ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??????????. ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????????????? ????????????? ??????????????????. ????????????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????, ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????????????. ???? ?????? ????????????? ???? ????????????????? ???????????????????. ???????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????????? ??? ?????????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ????????????????. ???????? ?????????? ???????????? ??? ???????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? 88-94% ????? [11] [12]

2 H
2 O (l) → 2 H
2 (g) + O
2 (g).

?????????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ????????????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????????????????? [13] . ??????? ???? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????. ???????????? 80° ????????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????. ?????? ????????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????????. ??? ???????????????? ????????????????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????? ????????. ??????????????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ??????????????. ?????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????????. ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????????????? ????????????????????. ????? ?????? ??????????????????? ?????? ?????????????????.

?????? ??? ?????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????????????????. ???? ?????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ????????????. 2000 ??? ??????? ??????????? 95% ?????? ?????? ??? ?????????? ????????????? ????? ???????????????? [14] ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????????????.. [15] . ???? ????????????? (1000-1400 ????????, 700-1100 ° ????????? ?????? 1300-2000 ???????????), ?????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????????.

CH
4 + H
2 O → CO + 3 H
2 .

???? ???? ??????? ???????????? ???? ????????? ?????. ????? ??????????? ???? ???????????? (2.0 ?????????????, 20 ???????? ???????? ?????? 600 ??. ??. ???????) ???????????????. ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????????????? ???????????. ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? (PSA) ??? ?????? ????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????????????. ?????????????? ??????????? ???? ???????? ???? ????????????. ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ????????????????????. ?????? ???? ??? ?????????????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????????????. ???? ????? ??????????????????? ???????????? ?? ???????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????.

CH4 → C + 2 H2

?????? ??? ?????????? ????????????? ???? ???? ??????? ????????????????????. ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????????? ????? ????????. ??????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ???? ????????? : [15]

CO + H
2 O → CO
2 + H
2 .

???? ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? : [16]

2 CH
4 + O
2 → 2 CO + 4 H
2 .

???????????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????? ???????????????? : [15]

C + H
2 O → CO + H
2

??? ????????????? ?????? ???????????????, ??????????????? ??? ????????????? ?????????????. ??????? ??????????????? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????????? [17] ????? ???? ??????????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????????? ????????? [18] .

???????? [ ???? ]

???????? ?????? ????????, ??????????, ?????????. ??? ??????? ????????. ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????. ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??????. ????????????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????. ???????????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????. ?????????? ???????? ??????????, ?????????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ????????. ???????????? ???????? 93 ?????????? ??????. ??????? ??????? ????????????? ???? ????? ????????????. ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ( atomic fuel ) ??????.

?????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????, ???????? ??????? ( escape velocity ) ??? ??????? ???????? ????. ???, ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ??????. ?????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ??????. ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ????????? ( Metallic hydrogen ) ?????????? ??????? ????????????????. ???? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????????????? ??????????????.

H - ???? ?????? ????????????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? 1, ??? ???? 1.008, ???????? ?.089 ???? /?.??.???? ??? ???????? , ???? ???????? ?????? 13.95 ??????? 20.35 K ?????. ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ????????? ????. ??? H 2 ????? ?????????????.

??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????. [19] ???????? ??????? ????, ???????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????????. ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????????????. [20] ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????????. ??????????? ????????? ( non-metals ) ??????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ????????????? ( hydrides ) ????????. ????????-???????? ????? ???????? ???????????????? ???????????. ??????????? ( Fluorine ) ??????? ???? ????????? ??? ???????????. ???????????, ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????? , ??????? , ???????? , ??????? ???????????? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ??????????. [21] [22] ???????? ???????????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????????????. ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???????????? ( Oxidising agent ) ???? ?????????????. [23] [24]

??????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ??????????????.

????? ?????? [ ???? ]

???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ???????, ????????? ???????????? ???????????, ???????????? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ??? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????????????. 1937?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????????????. ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????? ????????.

????????? [ ???? ]

???? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ????, ??? ????????? ( Margarine )????????? ???????? ????????. ??? ????????????? ( hydrogenation ) ??????. ??????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ??? ???????????? ??????????? ???? ???????????????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????????????. ????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????.

????????? [ ???? ]

????????? ??????????????? ??????? ( Ammonia ) ???????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????. ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????.

???? [ ???? ]

?????????? ??? ??????????,??????? ??????? ????????. ?????????? , ????????? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ???? ?????????????. ?????? ??????????? ?? ????????????????????, ????? ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????????. ????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????. [25] ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????????. ?????? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????. ??? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????????????. ????????? ???????????? ??????????????, ????????? ????? ???????????? ??? ????????????? ???????????????.

????? ?????? [ ???? ]

?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????????. ?????? ??????????? ( Watergas reaction ) ???? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ???????????? ??????????????????????. ??? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????????. ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????????????. ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????. ???????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????????. ???? ??? ????????????? ????????? ????????? ?????????????????. ??? ?????????? ???? ?????????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????????. ????? ????? ?????? ????????????. [26] ??? ??????????????? ????????????. ??????????? ?????????????? ????? ???????? ??? ???????????? ????????????. ??? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????, ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????????. ??? ????????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????.

?????? ?????????? [ ???? ]

?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????????????. ??? ????????, ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????. ????????????? ????? ????????? ????????,????????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????????. ?????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????????. ??? ???????????????, ????????? ????? ??????????? ??????????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????.

????????? ?????????????? [ ???? ]

?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ( Nuclear fusion ) ????????? ????? ???????? ???????????. ????????, ????????????? ( deuterium ) ??????? ??????????? ( tritium ) ???? ??? ??? ????????? ( isotope ) ???????????. ????????????? ?????????, ??????????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????. ????????????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????. ?????????? ???? ?????? 1 /200 %. ?????? 6000 ???? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ??????????. ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????????????????????. ?????? ?????? 40% ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ?????????? ??? ????????????. ?? ???? ??? ??????? ????????????? ????????????????? (????????? ???????????) ???????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ???????????. [27] ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????. ???? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????????. ??????????? ??? ??????????? ?????????????. ???? ??? ????????????? ( Half life period ) 12.26 ????????. ???????? ??? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ( Cosmic rays ) ????????? ???? ??????????? ??? ????? ?????????, ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????????. [28] ?????????????, ?????????????? [29] ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?????????????????????. [30] [31] ??????????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ???????????, ??????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ?????????????, ??? ?????????????? ?????? ????? ??????????????. [32] [33] [34]

???? ???? [ ???? ]

???????? ( Poly water ) ???? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????. ???? ????????, ???? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ???????????????, ??? ?????? ???? ( anomalous water ) ??????? ???????. ?????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ( Colloidal ) ?????????? ?????????? ????? ??? ????????????, ???????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ????????????.

??? [ ???? ]

???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????. ??????? ???????????, ????????, ?????????????? ??????? ??????????????, ????? ???????????? , ?????????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ?????????.

  • ???????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????.
  • ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ????????????.
  • ????????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????, ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ??? ????????????? ????????? (unsaturated) ?????????? ???? ????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ?????????.
  • ???????? ??? ??????????? ????? ????????, ??????, ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???????? .??? ????????????? ?????? ( triple point ) ??????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ( calibration ) ??????? ????????????.
  • ?????????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????????, ???????? ?????? ( Hydrogen bomb ) ?????????? ????????????. ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ????????? .
  • ??????? ??????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ????????????. ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ????????????, ???????? ??? ??????????? ??? ??? ???? ????????????? (tracer) ???? ????????????????.
  • ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ????????????????????.
  • ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??????????????? ????????????????????.
  • ???????? ??????, ???????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????? (shielding gas) ????????????.
  • ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????????????.
  • ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ????????????.
  • ?? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????.
  • ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ????????????.

?????? [ ???? ]

?????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ?????????. [35] ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? 25% ???????? [36] , 75% ??????????? ????? [37] . ???????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????????, ????????? ?????????? ?????. ???????? ?????? ??????????????????, ????????? ?????????? ???????????????????. ???? ?????????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? 0.1 ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????????. [38] [39] ??? ???? ?????? ??????????? ????? ???????? ???? ????????????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????? ??????????????.

????????, ????????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????, ??????? ??????????-??????????? ???????????? ????????????????. ??? ???????? ????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????????.

???????????? [ ???? ]

  • ???? - diatomic
  • ???????? ?????? - lifting gas
  • ????????? ???? - fuel cell

??????????? [ ???? ]

  1. ↑ "Hydrogen". Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Chemistry . (2005). Wylie-Interscience. 797?799. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 978-0-471-61525-5 .  
  2. ↑ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 183?191. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-19-850341-5 .
  3. ↑ Stwertka, Albert (1996). A Guide to the Elements . Oxford University Press. pp. 16?21. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-19-508083-4 .
  4. ↑ Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (PDF) (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-8493-0486-6 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-03 . ????????????? ???? 2022-10-30 .
  5. ↑ Palmer, D. (13 September 1997). "Hydrogen in the Universe" . ???? . ????????????? ???? 5 February 2008 .
  6. ↑ Palmer, David (1997-09-13). "Hydrogen in the Universe" . NASA . ????????????? ???? 2008-02-05 .
  7. ↑ Palmer, D. (13 September 1997). "Hydrogen in the Universe" . ????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? . ????????????? ???? 2008-02-05 . Note that most of the universe's mass is not in the form of Baryon|chemical elements, however. ??????? ??????????? (???????) ??????? ??????? ?????? .
  8. ↑ Boyle, Robert "Tracts written by the Honourable Robert Boyle containing new experiments, touching the relation betwixt flame and air..." (London, England: 1672).
  9. ↑ Winter, Mark (2007). "Hydrogen: historical information" . WebElements Ltd . ????????????? ???? 2008-02-05 .
  10. ↑ " Discovering the Elements ". Presenter: Professor Jim Al-Khalili. Chemistry: A Volatile History . ?????? . BBC Four . 2010-01-21. 25:40 minutes in.
  11. ↑ Thomassen, Magnus. "Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers" (PDF) . fch.europa.eu/ . FCH JU . ????????????? ???? 22 April 2018 .
  12. ↑ Kruse, B.; Grinna, S.; Buch, C. (2002). "Hydrogen Status og Muligheter" (PDF) . Bellona. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 ?????????? 2008 . ????????????? ???? 12 ?????????? 2008 .
  13. ↑ Kruse, Bjørnar. "Hydrogen Status og muligheter" (PDF) . bellona.org/ . Bellona Norway . ????????????? ???? 22 April 2018 .
  14. ↑ Ogden, J. M. (1999). "Prospects for building a hydrogen energy infrastructure". Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 24 : 227?279. doi : 10.1146/annurev.energy.24.1.227 .  
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Oxtoby, D. W. (2002). Principles of Modern Chemistry (5th ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-03-035373-4 .
  16. ↑ "Hydrogen Properties, Uses, Applications" . Universal Industrial Gases, Inc. 2007 . ????????????? ???? 11 March 2008 .
  17. ↑ Funderburg, E. (2008). "Why Are Nitrogen Prices So High?" . The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation. Archived from the original on 9 ?? 2001 . ????????????? ???? 11 ???????? 2008 .
  18. ↑ Lees, A. (2007). "Chemicals from salt" . BBC. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007 . ????????????? ???? 11 March 2008 .
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  24. ↑ IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, Electronic version, Hydrogen Bond
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  28. ↑ The Elements , Theodore Gray, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc., 2009
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  30. ↑ Broad, William J. (November 11, 1991). "Breakthrough in Nuclear Fusion Offers Hope for Power of Future" . The New York Times . http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE4D81030F932A25752C1A967958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all . ??????? ????: 2008-02-12 .  
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  33. ↑ Kendall, Carol; Caldwell, Eric (1998). Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry . US Geological Survey . http://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/isoig/isopubs/itchch2.html#2.5.1 . ??????? ????: 2008-03-08 .  
  34. ↑ "The Tritium Laboratory" . University of Miami. 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28 . ????????????? ???? 2008-03-08 .
  35. ↑ Staff (2003). "Hydrogen (H 2 ) Properties, Uses, Applications: Hydrogen Gas and Liquid Hydrogen" . Universal Industrial Gases, Inc . ????????????? ???? 2008-02-05 .
  36. ↑ Tikhonov, Vladimir I.; Volkov, Alexander A. (2002). "Separation of Water into Its Ortho and Para Isomers". Science 296 (5577): 2363. doi : 10.1126/science.1069513 . ??????? : 12089435 .  
  37. ↑ Hritz, James (2006). "CH. 6 ? Hydrogen" (PDF) . NASA Glenn Research Center Glenn Safety Manual, Document GRC-MQSA.001 . NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-10-20 . ????????????? ???? 2008-02-05 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( |date= suggested) ( help )
  38. ↑ Milenko, Yu. Ya.; Sibileva, R. M.; Strzhemechny, M. A (1997). "Natural ortho-para conversion rate in liquid and gaseous hydrogen". Journal of Low Temperature Physics 107 (1?2): 77?92. doi : 10.1007/BF02396837 . Bibcode:  1997JLTP..107...77M .  
  39. ↑ Shinitzky, M; Elitzur, Avshalom C. (2006). "Ortho-para spin isomers of the protons in the methylene group". Chirality 18 (9): 754?756. doi : 10.1002/chir.20319 . ??????? : 16856167 .  

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