??????????

?????????? ??????
????? ??????? ????? ???????
1952 ???????????125 ?? ???????

????? ????? (????????, ????? ????????, ??????) ??? ????? [1] [2] ?? ????? [3] [4] ???? ????? ??????. ???? ??? ????, ??????? ????, ??????????, ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???????, ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??. ????? ???? ?????, ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ????????????? ????.    1894 ?? ??????????????? ?? ??????????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ???.??? 2014 ?? ??????, ???? (?????) ?? ???? ??????????(????????) [5]  ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??????????? ??? ??????.

????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????  ????????. ????????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????  ??? ?? ?? ???????? ????????????? ????????  ?????.?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????  ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????????? ??????? ??.???? ????  ??????? ???? ????????? ??????????? 58%?? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????,????? ?? ????????  ???????? ?????  ?? ???????.

???????? ??????? ????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????  ????????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? 37 ?????? ????. [6]

???? [ ???????? ]

????? ????????????(???????) ?? ??????? ???????????? 
????? ???? ???? ????????????
?????? ??????(??)?? ????? ???????

"???????????" ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??. 

???? ?????, ??? ????? ???? ????????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?????  ???????? ??? ??  ????????? ???? ????? ??.??? ?????  ?????????  ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????????????? ????  ?????? ??? ????????? ??,??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ??  ???  ????? ???? ??? ????????? ?? ???????????? ????????????  ???? ???? ????? ????????? ??.

?????,??????? ?????????,??????? ?? ?????? ??  ????????? ???? ????????? ??????? ??????.??? ????? ???? ?????????   ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????  ???  ???? ???? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????  ??????  ??????? ?????? ???  ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?????????  ???? ????? ???? ???????????? ?? ??? ???? ??  ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??.

??? ????? ???  ????????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ??  ????? ???? ?? ??????  ???????????? ?????????.

??????? [ ???????? ]

??????? ?? ?????????? [ ???????? ]

???????-?????? ????????? ????????

???????? ??????????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ?????  ???????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????????  ????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ?????????????  ?????? ?????? 1885 ?????? ???. [7] ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????  ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????. ???? ??? ??? ???????(????????) ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???????(?????? ??) ??????? ?????. ?? ???? ??? ???????? ???? ??? 70?? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??. ? ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ??. [8]

????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? . [9] [10]

???????? ??????? ??????????

???????? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ?????  ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ???? ??????  ?????? ?????? 1884 ?? ??? ?? ??????????. [11] ???  ????? ??????? ???? ????????? 1884 ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????  ?????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ???? ?????. ?? ????? 1888?? ??????????? ?? ????????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????  ?????? ???. [12]

???????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? 5/8 (466????) ???? ??????? 600 ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??????????(???????? ??????, ???????? ?? ?????????? ????????????? ??? ??) ?? ??????. ??? ?????? ?????? ????, ???????-????? ???????????????, ???????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????. ??? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ????????.?????? ????????? ???? ????????????? ???? ??? ???. ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???. ???? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??? ???. ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ????????. ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????. ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???. ?????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ???. [13]

??? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ???????,??? ?????  ???? ??????,????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???  ???? ???? "???????????" ?? ??? ????? ????????  ???????? ??? ???? ??????. [14] [15] [16]

????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????  ???? ????????? ???  ??? ?????? [17]  ??????? ????????? ??  ?????????? ??? 1868 ????????? [9] [10] ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? "? ?????????  ???? ????? ?????? ??????????" ??? ?? ???????? ????????? ???. ?? ???????? ????????? ????? ???. ???????????, ????? ?????????, ??????????? ?????? "????? ?????? ??????????" ?????????? ??????? ???? ???. ????? 1867?? ?? ?????????? ???????? ????????? [7] ??????? ?? ?????? ?? [9] [10] ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????????? 10?? ??? ?????? ???. [16]


????? ????? ??? ??? ??????????? ??????? ????? ?????
1867?1868 ??????-

?????? ?????? ??????????

2 ????? ??????

??????-???????? ??????

?????
  • ?? ???????????? ????? ?????? ???
1867?1868 ?????? ?????? ?????????? 2 ??????????? ????? ?????
  • ?? ???????????? ????? ?????? ???
1885 ??????? ????????? 2 (???? ??? 2?? ???) ???????? ???????

?????????? ?????

????????? ???????? ????
  • ?? ???????????? ????? ?????? ???
1887 ?????? ???????? ?????? 3 (??????? 2?? ????) ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????
1894 ??????????????? ?? ??????????? 2 ?????????? ???????????????

?????????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????????

????????? ???????? ????
  • ???? ?????????
  • ????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ?? ????? ????
  • "????? ????" ????? ???????? ???? ???? ????????

???? ????????? ?????? [ ???????? ]

1894 ?????? ??????????????? ?? ??????????? ??????????? ???????

???? 1894?? ??????????????? ?? ??????????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????. ?? ???? ??? "???????????"(??????? ???????? "???????") [9] [10] [16] [18] ??? ??????? ???. ????????? ???????????? ?????? "?????????????? ????? ?????"  1896?? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???. ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? "???????????" ?????????????? 1898??  ?????? "????????-??????" ???????????.

????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???. ??? ????????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????. 19 ?? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ???????, ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ????????????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???.

19 ?? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ??????  ???????? ??????? ???.1898 ???? ????????? ?? ???????? ??? ????????? ???????  ??? ????????? ????????? ????? ??? ???.1903  ????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????  ????????? 500?? ??? ???. ????? ?????????,??????? ??  ??????????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? 1899,1902 ??1910 ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???. [19]  ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ???  ???? ????????? ????? ??????? ???.???? ???  ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ???,? ?? ??? ????? [20] [21] ????? ????????? 20,000 ?????? ???????? ???? ???. [22]

????????? ??????????? ??? ???????,??? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???

???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ???. ????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ?? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????????? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ???. ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????????? "???? ?????????" ????? ??????? ???????? ????? 50% ? ???? ?????????? ??? ???????????? ???? ???? ???. ??????????? ??????? ?? "?????????" ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? "????????? ???" ?????????? ????????? 30,000?? ??? ???? ?????????? ???? ???. ?? ??????????? ?????? ???????? 499???? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???. ??? ?? ????(?????) ???? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???. [23] ??? ??? ??????? ?????? "???? ??????????" ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????. [24] ?? 1915?? ??????????? ???? ??? ?? 550???? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ????????????. ??? ?????????? "???????? ?????????" ?? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???. [25]

??????? ??? ???? [ ???????? ]

???????? ?????????????? ?????? ????? ??????????,1955 ????????? ????????? ????? ?? 250???? ??????? ??????????? 

??? 1920 ?? ??? ????? 67?? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????????? [26] ??? ??????. [27] [28] 20 ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ??? ??????. [29] [30] [31] 1950?? "1955 ????????? ???????? ?????" ?? 250???? ??????? ??????????? ??? "???????? ???????? ??????????????" ?????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ????????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ???. ????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ??? "????????" ?? "???? ???" ??? ???. [32] "????????" ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? 1954-1956 ???? ??? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???. "???? ???" ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ??? 1957?? ???????? "????????? ????????" ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????????? ??? ???. ?? ??? ???, 1958 ?? ???????? ??????????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??? ???. [33] 

1950?? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ??? 1960 ????? ??? 1990 ???? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ???? ???????? ???.
[34]

???????? [ ???????? ]

????? ????????? ?????

21?? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ????????? ????????? ?? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ??? ???????????? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ?????????? ????(300???? ??? ??? ???) ????????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????. ????????? ??? ????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ??, ????? ?????? "?????? ????? ???" ?????????? ??????? ???.?? ???????? 2008 ?????????? ?? ??? ?????? 60?? ???. [35] ????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ?? ????????? "???? ???? ??????" ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????. ?? ????? ?? ?????? "???????????" ?????????? ?????? 8.5 ?????? ?????? ??????. [36] ????? ??????????? ??? "?????" ?? "??????? ???????" ??????? ???. [37]

????????? ??? [ ???????? ]

????????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????500 ??????????

???????? [ ???????? ]

  ????????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ?????, ??????? ?? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????, ?????????, ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???. ?????? ??????? ?? ????????, ??? ?????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ????????? ???? ?? ?????????? ?????, ??????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ????(???? ??), ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????. ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ????. ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ???????????? ????? ?? ??? ??? 5?? ?? 6???? ??????? ?? ????. ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ????.

????? ????????? [ ???????? ]

??????????? ????? ?????????, ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? [38] ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????. ?? ?????? "??????? ?? ??.??.100?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? 8.1?? ?? ??? [39] "?????? ????????" 50???? ???????? ?? ???????? ???? 2.2?? ???. [40] ?????????? ?????? ?? "????? ????????? ?????? ???????? 125" ??????????? ?? ??? ???? 0.5?? ???. [41] ???? ????????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??????????? ????? ????. 1950 ??????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??????????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ???.

?????????? ????? ?? ????????? [ ???????? ]

?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????????? ??? ????. ??? ????????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????? ???, ?????? ???? ????????? ??? ?? ??. ????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??. [42] ?????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ?????????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????????-??????? ???????? ??????, ?????????? ?????? ????.

????????????? [ ???????? ]

2013 ???? ????????? "?????????? ??????????" ???? ???????? 4424?? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???? 2009 ???? ??? 2012 ??? ????? ???? ??? ????????? 4680?? ????? ??? ??. [43]  ????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ?????, ??????, ??????? ??????? (???????, ??????, ??????), ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????, ????????? ????/??????? ????????, ???????? ????? ????????? ???.  [43]  ??? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???.  [43]  ?????, ????????? ?????/??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????, ?????, ???? ????? ????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ???.  [44]  ??? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????. [43]   ??????????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????, ?????? ?? ???? ????????? 11%-14% ??? ?????????????? ??? ????? ????   [43] ???? ????????? ?? ???????????? ????????? ?????????? 24% ?? ?? 30%? ?????????????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??. [43]  ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ????????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???????????? ???? ????????? ?? ???????????? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ???. ????????? ?????????????? ????? 3/4?? ????????? ????? 200? ??? ??? ???? 2/3?? ?????????????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??. ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???? ????????? ?? ???????????? ?????? ????????????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? 3/4? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???? ???????. ?? ???????? ???? ??????????? ??????, ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? 72%, 60% ?? 63%? ????????? ????? ??? ??????? ???. [43]

?????????? [ ???????? ]

???? ????????? ??????? ??? ?????

????????? ????????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?? ?????????? ????? ????????? ???? ?? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????. ????????? ???, ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ???????????? ????? ????. ????????? ??????????? ????????????? ????: ?????? [45]

????????????????????? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? "????????? ????????" ??? ????????. ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????????. [46] [47] [48]


???? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ????? ??????, ?????????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???.


???? ????? [ ???????? ]

????????????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ????. ??? ????? ??????????? ????? ???????, ???????, ????? ?????, ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? (???? ????????????? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????) ??????? ????.

???????? [ ???????? ]

????? ??, ?????? ??, ??? ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ??. 2005 ????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????????????? ????, ??? ???????? ????????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ?? 100,000?? 18.62? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ???? 75.19? ????? ???. ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? 4 ???????? ??? ?????. [49]

?? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? 100?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? 1.56?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ??? 43.47??. ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? 28 ??????. ??? 1990 ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??.  

????????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???

?????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????????????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??. [50]  ??? "SMIDSY" ??? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? "??????? ?????, ?? ?? ?????? ???" ??. [51]  ??? ???????, ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????, ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???. [52]

?????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??. ??? ???? ???  ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? (??????????) ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????? (???????) ??????? ???. ???? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????. [53]

????? ?????????, "?????? ?????" ????????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ????. ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????????, ???????? ????, ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????. ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ????????? ??????? ??? ????????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??. [54]

?????? ???? ????????? ???? ????????

?????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??. ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ????????? ????? ????. ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????, ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??.

2010 ???? ??? ?????????, [55] ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????????????? ????????? [56] [57] [58] [59] ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??.

???????, ????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ??. ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ??. ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ????, ????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????. [60] ?????? ??????? ??????????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ????????? ????.

????????? ???? ?????? [ ???????? ]

???? ?????? ???? ???????????? ??1??????????
???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????-??? ????????

?????????????? ???? ??????? ?????(?????????) ?? ??????????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ???????. ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????. [61]

  • ???????- ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??????(???? ??????? 50? ????) ???????. ??? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????. ??? ??? ?? ???? ??????????? ??? ?????????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????. ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?????????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ??????.
  • ?????? - ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????. ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??. ??? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????. [62] [63] ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ???????-??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ???, ????????? ???? ???? ??? ????. [64]
  • ????? - ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????. ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??. ??? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??. ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ????. ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??. [65] [66]

??????????? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ???????, ??, ????? ?? ?????????? ??????????, ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????. ???????? ????? ?????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??, ??, ??? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????.

?????? ??????? ?? ??????? [ ???????? ]

???? ???? ????? ????? ??????????, ?????????? ?????, ?????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??. ???? ????? 49???? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ???????? ??. ??? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????????? ??? ????????.

???????? ????? [ ???????? ]

????????? ?? ????????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ?? . [67] [68] ????????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? "?????????????" ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??. ?? ??? ???????? ??????? 0.4?? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ??? 65%? ????????.?????? ??? ??? ????? ???????????? ???????. [69]

????????? ??????????? ????? ???? ??????????, ???????? ??? ???????, ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ??? 10-20 ??? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????, ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???? ???????????? ????? ??. [67] [70] 

???? ????? ???? ????????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????.
[67]
1975 ??? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ???????????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ???.
[67]

?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? 2007 ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? [71] ????? ?? ?????? ????? 0.734?? ?? ???? ????????? ???? ?? ??? 0.8531?? ???. ????????? ????????? ????? 54%? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????.

?????? ?????? ?????? ???? [ ???????? ]

?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? 280???? ?? ?? ???? ????????? ???? ???????? ????? ???????????, ???????????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????. [72]

????? ????????? ????? ???????????? + ?????????? ???????? (?????????? ???????) ????? ??????????? (?????????? ???????)
?????1 2006–2009 1.4 12.0
?????2 2010 ?? ???? 0.8 12.0

?????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???. [72]

????????? ????? ???????????? (?????????? ???????) ????? ??????????? (?????????? ???????)
2006 ?? ???? 1.0 12.0

?????? [ ???????? ]

????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????????? [73] ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??. ?? ??????? ???? V ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????????? ????III ????? ????? ????? ?????. ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? 2012 ?? ???? IV ????? ?????? ?? 2015 ?? ???? V ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?? ??. [74]

????? ??? ??????? [ ???????? ]

????? ???? ?????????? ????????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? 26.29?? ???. [75]

????? ????? [ ???????? ]

????? [ ???????? ]

  1. ↑ > "Definition of Motorcycle by Merriam-Webster" . merriam-webster . ??????????? March 17, 2016 .
  2. ↑ Foale, Tony (2006). Motorcycle Handling and Chassis Design . Tony Foale Designs. pp. 4?1. ISBN   978-84-933286-3-4 .
  3. ↑ "Bureau of Motor Vehicles" . BMV . ??????????? March 17, 2016 .
  4. ↑ Cossalter, Vittore (2006). Motorcycle Dynamics . Lulu. ISBN   978-1-4303-0861-4 .
  5. ↑ "Top Five Global Motorcycle Companies: Performance, Strategies and Competitive Analysis" . researchandmarkets.com. August 2013 . ??????????? 2016-01-24 .
  6. ↑ "Traffic safety facts, 2008. Report no. DOT HS-811-159" (PDF) . NHTSA's National Center for Statistics and Analysis. 2008 . ??????????? 15 September 2010 .
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "The Past ? 1800s: First motorcycle" . The History and Future of Motorcycles and motorcycling ? From 1885 to the Future, Total Motorcycle Website . ??????????? 28 June 2007 .
  8. ↑ Lienhard, John H. (2005). Inventing Modern: Growing Up with X-Rays, Skyscrapers, and Tailfins . Oxford University Press US . pp. 120?121. ISBN   0-19-518951-5 .
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Setright, L.J.K. (1979). The Guinness book of motorcycling facts and feats . Guinness Superlatives. pp. 8?18. ISBN   978-0-85112-200-7 .
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Falco, Charles M. ; Guggenheim Museum Staff (1998). "Issues in the Evolution of the Motorcycle". In Krens, Thomas; Drutt, Matthew (eds.). The Art of the Motorcycle . Harry N. Abrams. pp. 24?31. ISBN   0-89207-207-5 .
  11. ↑ "motorcycle (vehicle)" . Encyclopedia Britannica.
  12. ↑ G.N. Georgano, p. 22
  13. ↑ G.N. Georgano, pp. 20-22
  14. ↑ "motorcycle, n.". Oxford English Dictionary Online . Oxford University Press. March 2009. 1. A two-wheeled motor-driven road vehicle, resembling a bicycle but powered by an internal-combustion engine; (now) spec. one with an engine capacity, top speed, or weight greater than that of a moped.
  15. ↑ Long, Tony (30 August 2007). "Aug. 30, 1885: Daimler Gives World First 'True' Motorcycle" . Wired (magazine) . ISSN   1059-1028 .
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Kresnak, Bill (2008). Motorcycling for Dummies . Hoboken, New Jersey : For Dummies , Wiley Publishing . ISBN   0-470-24587-5 .
  17. ↑ "Electric Bikes Drive Global Sales" . ??????????? 5 March 2015 .
  18. ↑ "Brief History of the Marque: Hildebrand & Wolfmuller" . Hildebrand & Wolfmuller Motorad, European Motorcycle Universe . ??????????? 28 June 2007 .
  19. ↑ "History of Motorbikes" .
  20. ↑ Walker, Mick (2006). Motorcycle: Evolution, Design, Passion . JHU Press. ISBN   978-0-8018-8530-3 .
  21. ↑ George Hendee . The AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame Museum . ??????????? 8 August 2009 .
  22. ↑ Youngblood, Ed (June 2001). "The Rise and Fall" . American Motorcyclist . Vol. 55, no. 6. American Motorcyclist Assoc.
  23. ↑ "Triumph history" . 8 September 2008 ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 20 May 2009 .
  24. ↑ "Triumph Motorcycle History" .
  25. ↑ Ian Chadwick. "Triumph Motorcycles timeline" .
  26. ↑ "History of Harley-Davidson Motor Company" .
  27. ↑ Prashad, Sharda (16 April 2006). "HOG WILD; U of T professor Brendan Calder is one of the legions of baby boomers who have helped to ensure the success of the Harley-Davidson brand name, not to mention its bottom line" . Toronto Star . Toronto, Ont. p. A.16. 30 June 2017 ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 6 March 2017 .
  28. ↑ Cato, Jeremy (8 August 2003). "Harley-Davidson at 100". The Vancouver Sun . Vancouver, B.C. p. E.1.Fro.
  29. ↑ Vance, Bill (24 April 2009). "Motoring Memories: DKW/Auto Union, 1928?1966" . Canadian Driver .
  30. ↑ de Cet, Mirco (2002). The illustrated directory of motorcycles . MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. p. 128. ISBN   978-0-7603-1417-3 . [ permanent dead link ]
  31. ↑ Walker, Mick (1999). Mick Walker's German Racing Motorcycles . Redline Books. p. 61. ISBN   978-0-9531311-2-9 .
  32. ↑ Willoughby, Vic (1982). Exotic Motorcycles . London: Osprey Publishing, Ltd. ISBN   0-85045-322-4 .
  33. ↑ "Rupert Hollaus" . Motorsport Memorial . ??????????? 3 April 2008 .
  34. ↑ Ed Youngblood. "Motocross goes International, 1947 through 1965" . The History of Motocross, Part Two, Motorcycle Hall of Fame Museum . ??????????? 29 June 2007 .
  35. ↑ Squatriglia, Chuck (23 May 2008). "Honda Sells Its 60 Millionth ? Yes, Millionth ? Super Cub" . Autopia . Wired . ??????????? 28 January 2010 .
  36. ↑ "Hero Honda splendor sells more than 8.5 million units" . indiacar.net. 21 February 2008 ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 10 August 2008 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored ( |url-status= suggested) ( help )
  37. ↑ O'Malley Greenburg, Zack (13 August 2007). "World's Cheapest Car" . Forbes . ??????????? 28 January 2010 .
  38. ↑ "Motorcycle Fuel Consumption & Real World Performance Guide" . MFC Website . ??????????? 13 June 2008 .
  39. ↑ "Total Motorcycle Fuel Economy Guide" . Total Motorcycle Website . ??????????? 14 August 2006 .
  40. ↑ "Verucci Gas Scooters" . Gekgo Worldwide, www.gekgo.com . ??????????? 15 August 2006 .
  41. ↑ Vetter, Craig . "Doing More with Less Energy" . The Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Contests ? 1980 through 1985 . ??????????? 15 August 2006 .
  42. ↑ "Electric Motorcycles" . Solo Moto . ??????????? 15 May 2016 .
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 43.6 "Most reliable motorcycles; Japanese bikes have fewer problems than BMW and Harley models" , Consumer Reports , May 2013 , http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2013/05/most-reliable-motorcycles/index.htm?loginMethod=auto , ????????????? 26 March 2013  
  44. ↑ Bartlett, Jeff (26 March 2013), "Motorcycle reliability survey shows what goes wrong" , Consumer Reports , http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/news/2013/03/motorcycle-reliability-survey-shows-what-goes-wrong/index.htm , ????????????? 26 March 2013  
  45. ↑ ????; ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????.

  46. ↑ Joel Fajans (July 2000). "Steering in bicycles and motorcycles" (PDF) . American Journal of Physics . 68 (7): 654?59. doi : 10.1119/1.19504 . ??????????? 4 August 2006 .
  47. ↑ Dr. Hugh H. Hurt, PhD. (January 1981). "Motorcycle Accident Cause Factors and Identification of Countermeasures, Volume 1: Technical Report, Hurt, H.H., Ouellet, J.V. and Thom, D.R., Traffic Safety Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90007, Contract No. DOT HS-5-01160" (PDF) . U.S. Department of Transportation, NHTSA. 2014-08-23 ??? ???? ????? (PDF) ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 2017-03-06 . {{ cite journal }} : Cite journal requires |journal= ( help )
  48. ↑ Crouch, Tom D. (1989). The Bishop's Boys . New York: W. W. Norton. p. 170. ISBN   0-393-30695-X .
  49. ↑ "MOTORCYCLE ACCIDENT CAUSE FACTORS AND IDENTIFICATION OF COUNTERMEASURES VOLUME I: TECHNICAL REPORT, Traffic Safety Center - University of Southern California" (PDF) . 1981. p. 416.
  50. ↑ "The 'sorry mate I didn't see you' campaign" . South Gloucestershire Council . ??????????? 21 May 2008 .
  51. ↑ Quick Tips: General guidelines for riding a motorcycle safely , Motorcycle Safety Foundation , October 2006 , http://msf-usa.org/downloads/If_you_ride_a_motorcycle.pdf , ????????????? 13 June 2012  
  52. ↑ "Motorcycling : THINK! : Roadsafety" . think.direct.gov.uk . ??????????? 2016-06-01 .
  53. ↑ "About Think Bike" . Think Bike . ??????????? 21 March 2010 .
  54. ↑ "GDL rollout" . Road Safety Association of Ireland . ??????????? 2015-08-15 .
  55. ↑ "Learner riders licence" . Motorcycle Rider Training Scheme, Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW . ??????????? 16 May 2007 .
  56. ↑ "Learner Licence" . Road Transport Information Management, www.rego.act.gov.au . ??????????? 16 May 2007 .
  57. ↑ "TAS Learner Licence" . Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources . ??????????? 13 June 2009 .
  58. ↑ "Motorcyclist Education Training And Licensing (METAL)" . Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, www.ipe.nt.gov.au . 7 May 2007 ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 16 May 2007 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored ( |url-status= suggested) ( help )
  59. ↑ "MMIC Information" . Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council . ??????????? 16 May 2007 .
  60. ↑ "A Three Dimensional Analysis of Riding Posture in Three Different Styles of Motorcycle" (PDF) . Motorcycle Safety Foundation . March 2006. 27 March 2012 ??? ???? ????? (PDF) ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 31 January 2008 .
  61. ↑ Duglin Kennedy, Shirley; Greisler, Ben (1998). Chilton's Motorcycle Handbook . Haynes North America . p. 71. ISBN   0-8019-9099-8 . {{ cite book }} : More than one of |ISBN= and |isbn= specified ( help ) ; More than one of |first1= and |first= specified ( help ) ; More than one of |last1= and |last= specified ( help ) ; More than one of |pages= and |page= specified ( help )
  62. ↑ Duglin Kennedy, Shirley (2005). The Savvy Guide to Motorcycles . Indy Tech Publishing. p. 75. ISBN   978-0-7906-1316-1 . {{ cite book }} : More than one of |ISBN= and |isbn= specified ( help )
  63. ↑ Stermer, Bill (2006). Streetbikes: Everything You Need to Know . MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. p. 16. ISBN   978-0-7603-2362-5 . {{ cite book }} : More than one of |ISBN= and |isbn= specified ( help )
  64. ↑ Stermer, Bill (2006). Streetbikes: Everything You Need to Know . MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. p. 10. ISBN   978-0-7603-2362-5 . {{ cite book }} : More than one of |ISBN= and |isbn= specified ( help )
  65. ↑ Duglin Kennedy, Shirley (2005). The Savvy Guide to Motorcycles . Indy Tech Publishing. p. 71. ISBN   978-0-7906-1316-1 . {{ cite book }} : More than one of |ISBN= and |isbn= specified ( help )
  66. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 67.3 Carpenter, Susan (11 June 2008). "Motorcycles and emissions: The surprising facts" . LA Times . ??????????? 8 August 2008 . {{ cite news }} : More than one of |authorlink= and |author-link= specified ( help )
  67. ↑ Judy Dahl (September 2007). "Baby, You Can Drive My Vespa" . Madison Magazine. 11 October 2007 ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? . ??????????? 8 August 2008 . {{ cite news }} : More than one of |author= and |last= specified ( help )
  68. ↑ "Vespanomics ? Vespa Economics" (PDF) . Piaggio Group USA . ??????????? 8 February 2010 .
  69. ↑ Umbra Fisk (28 May 2003). "On motorcycles ? Ask Umbra" . Grist.
  70. ↑ "Certified Highway Motorcycle Test Result Report Data (2007)" . US EPA . 8 January 2008.
  71. ↑ 72.0 72.1 "EPA Emissions Regulations for 1978 and Later New Motorcycles, General Provisions" . United States Environmental Protection Agency . ??????????? 7 December 2013 .
  72. ↑ Madson, Bart (15 February 2007). "Motorcycle Emissions Regs Examined" . Motorcycle-USA.com . ??????????? 28 January 2010 .
  73. ↑ "EURO 5 Cycle Emissions Proposed for 2015" . Dealernews.com. 8 December 2008 . ??????????? 28 January 2010 .
  74. ↑ "Longest motorcycle" . Guinness World Records . ??????????? 2016-12-14 .

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