??????????????

???????????, ??? ????????? ???????????.
( ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????)
?????????????? ???????

?????????? ???????
???????? 70,000–3300 ????.??.
????? ???????? 7000–3300 ????.??.
?????? ????? ???????? 3300–1700 ????.??.
?????? ?????? ???????? 1700–1300 ????.??.
??? ???????? 1500–500 ????.??.
. ?????? ????????????? 1200–700 ????.??.
??????????? 700–300 ????.??.
??? ?????????? 684–26 ????.??.
. ????? ?????????? 321–184 ????.??.
??????? ????????????? 230 ????.??.–1279 ????.?.
. ???????????????? 230 ????.??.C–199 ????.?.
. ????? ?????????? 60–240 ????.?.
. ????? ?????????? 240–550 ????.?.
. ??? ?????????? 750–1174 ????.?.
. ??? ?????????? 848–1279 ????.?.
??????? ??????????? 1206–1596 ????.?.
. ?????? ?????????? 1206–1526 ????.?.
. ??????? ?????????? 1490–1596 ????.?.
?????? ?????????? 1040–1346 ????.?.
??????? ?????????? 1083–1323 ????.?.
??????? ?????????? 1336–1565 ????.?.
???? ?????????? 1526–1707 ????.?.
???? ?????????? 1674–1818 ????.?.
???????? ???????? 1757–1947 ????.?.
?????? ?????? ????.?. 1947 ????
????? ??????????
?????????? · ??????? · ??????
???????????? · ??????? · ????????? · ????????
????????? ???????
?????? · ????? · ?????????? ?????????? · ???????
?????? · ???????????? · ?????????? · ??????? . ?????
?????????? ???????? ??????????
????????????? · ????????? ????????????? . ??????????????
· ???????? · ??? · ????????
????????????? · ????????? · ??????? ?????????? · ??????????????
This box:

?????????? ??????????????????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????. ????.?? (?????????????????? ?????) 3300 ???? ????.?? 1300 ??? ??????? ???????????????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????????. ????.?? 2600 ???? ????.?? 1900 ??? ????????? ? ??????????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? . ? ????????? ???????? ????.?? ?????? ????????????????? ?????????? ????????????. ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????, ??? ??????-???? ??????????? ????? ???????? ??????????. ??????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???? ? ???????????????. ???? ????? ????????????? ????.?? 6-?? ??????????? ????????? ???? ???????? ???????. ??? ?????????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????????? ??????????????.

???????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? [1] (?????? ????.?? 543-?), ?????? ???????????????????????? [2] (????.??. 326-?) ?? ??????????????? ? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????????????????? ???? ??????????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ??????. ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????-???????? ?????????????? ????.?? 184 ???? ??????? , ???????? ????????? ??????????; ? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????, ???????????? ????????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????-??????? ?????????????? ?????.

????.?? 4-?? ????????????? 3-?? ????????????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????????????? ????? ?????????. ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ????????????? ?? ????????? ???????????????? ????????. ????? ??????????????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? 4-?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????????. ????????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ? ???????? ??????? ???????????????????????? " ?????????? ??????????? " ????? ?????????????? [3] . ???????????, ???????? ?? ?????????????????, ?????? ?????? , ???????? , ???? , ?????? , ???????? , ??????????? ????? ??????? ?????????????????? ??????????, ? ???????? ??????? ???????, ????, ????????, ??? ( ????????? , ???????? ) ?????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????.

?????????? ????.? 77 ???? ????? ???? ??????????????? ?????????????????????????. ??????? ??? ??????? ????????????? ???????? ????.? 712-? ???. ???? ??????????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? , ????????? ????? ?????????? ????????????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????. [4] ??? ???????? 10-?? 15-?? ???????????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????????? ??????? ????????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????????????? ???????????. ????????? , ?????? , ?????? ???????????? , ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????. ???????????????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????????. ??????????????????? ????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????????? ????????????. ????????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? , ??????? ?????????? , ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ?????????. ?????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ???? ????????????????? ????? ?????? ?????????. ??? ???????????????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ????????? , ??????? , ??????? ????????????? ??????????????? ????? ?????????? ????????????. ????????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ??? ? ??? ????????. [5]

18-?? ?????????????? ????????????? ?????????? ????????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????????. ?????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????????????? ???????. ????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ????????. ? ???? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????????????? ?????????? ????????????? ????????.

20-?? ?????????????? ???????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????. ? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????. 1947-? ??????? ????????? ?????? , ????????? ????? ???????????? ????????????????, ???? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???????.....

?????????? ???? [ ????????? ]

???????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????? ????????
???????? ??????????

?????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ???????????????. ???????????? ?????? ????????? 4,00,000 ??? 200,000 ???????????? ???????????? ?????????? ????????? ? ??????? ????????. ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????? ????????. ???????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ? ??????? ????????? ????? ????????????????. ???????????? ??????????????? ??????????????????????. [6]

?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????????? ????????? ?????? ????????????????? ???????? ???? ?????, 200,000 ???? 500,000 ??????????? ????????, ?????? ???????????????????? ???????.. [7] [8] ??????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????? 30,000 ??????????? ????? ???????, 25,000 ????????? ????????????. ?????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ???????????, ?????? 12,000 ??????????? ??????????? ???????????????.

??????????????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????????????????? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????????. ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????????. ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????????????????? ?????????????. ? ??????? ???????????? ??????????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????????????? ????? ?????????????. ????? ??????????? (??????? ?????) ???????????????? (???? ?????????)??????????? ???????? ????????????????.

? ??????? ????????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????????????? ?????????? ?????????????. ?????????? ??????????? ???????????????? ????????????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?? ?????????????? ??? ???????. ?????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????????. ???????? ?????? ??????????????????? ???????????????? ????????? ????????????????. ?? ??????? ??? ???????????????????????. [6]

5-?? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???? ????????????? ???????????? ????????????????. ?????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????????????????? ??????????. ?????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????????. ????? ? ?????????? ???????????? ??????????????????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????????. ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?????. ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ????????????????????????????, ??????? ????? ??????????? ????????????????????. ??????????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ??????????? ????? ????????. ? ?????????????? ???? ??????(???????? ??????) ????????? ???????? ??? ??????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ???? ???????????????????? ???????????????????? ???? ??????????? ?????????.

????????? ???????? ????? ??????????? 9,000 ??????????? ????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????????? ???. ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????????? ???????????????????? (????.??. 7000 ????). ??? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????? . ???????? ????????? ???????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ??????????? ??????????????????? - ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ????.?? 7500 ??? ?????? ????????????????. [9] ???????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????? ????.??. 6000 ???? ????.??. 2000 ??????, ?????? ????????? ????.??. 2800-??? 1200-??? ????????? ?????????.

??????? ????????????? ????? ????????? ????????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????? ???????????????????????. [10] [11] ? ?????????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ????????? ????????????? ??????, [12] ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? [13] [14] ????????????.

???????????? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????? ???????? ????????. [15] ????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?????????? [16] ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????????, [17] ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? , ?????? . [18] ????????????????.

?????????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????? ????? ????????
?????? ????? ????????????? ??? ?????? ????????????????? ??????-????
?????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? ??? ?????? ?????.

??????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? BCE 3300-?? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?????????????????. ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????????? ????? ??????? ????????????? ??????, ???????, ???, ???? (???) ?????? ???????????.

?????? ????? ???????? ??????????? BCE 2600 ???? ACE 1900 ???????. ? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????? ????????. ? ?????? ????????????? ?????? , ???????-???? ???????? ??? ??????????? ????????????? (?????? ???????????? ), ?????? , (?????? ?????????? ) ???? . ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????? ? ???????? ??????-???? ??? ???, [13] the ????-????? ?????? , [19] ????????? , [20] ?????? ???????????? . [21] ???????????? ??? ??????????.

???????????? ?????????? ???????, ????????????? ?????????? ????????, ?? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????????? ? ????????. ?????? ????? ????????????? ?????? , ??????? ???? , ?????? , ???????? , ????? , ????????? , ???????? ?????? ????????????. ??? ?????????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??? ??????????????????? ???????????? ??? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????????????. ?????? ????? ??????????? ????? ??? ??????????? ????????????? ??? ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????, ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????. [22]

??????? ???? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????????? ???????????

??????? ?????????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? (?????? ?????) ??????????? ?????????????, ??? ?????? ????? ????????????? ????? ??????? ??????????????. ? ??????? ??????? , ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????. ? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? , ????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????-?????????? ?????????? ?????????????????.

?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????? ???????? ???.

??? ???????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ??? ????????

???????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ??????????? ?????-????? ??????????? ??????????? (?????????????). ??????? ????? ??????????????? ????????? ??????? ???????. ??????? ????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ????????????. ??? ???????? ?????????? ?????? BCE 1500 ???? BCE 500 ???????. ? ??????????????? ???????? ??????? ???, ????????, ??? ?????????? ??????? ????????????. ? ??????????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????????????? ??????????? - ??? ??? BCE 3000 ??? ?????????????? ????? ???????????????. [23] ??? ??????????????? ???? 500 ??????? (????.??. 1500 - ????.??. 1000) ?????????? ???????????? ?????? 500 ??????? (????.??. 1000 - ????.??. 500) ?????????? ????????????? ???. ?? ????????? ???????????????? ?????-????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?????????????????????? - ??????? ?????-????? ??? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ???????????????? ??????-????????? ??????????????????? ????.??. 2-?? ????????????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??? ????????. ??? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????-????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????????? ??????????????. ???????????? ??? ??????? ????????????????? ????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????. [24] ????? ??? ?????? ????????????????? ????????? ? ??????? ????????????. ?????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????????????????. 19-?? ??????????? ????????????????? “????? ?????? ??????????” ????????????? ??????? ??????????????????????? ??????? ????????????. ????? ???? "????? ?????????????????" ????? ????????????????????? ????? ?????? ??????????.

??????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??????????? ??? ??????????. ???????????? ??????? ????????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????????. [25] ???????????? ???? ???? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????; ????? ??????????????? ????????????. ?????????????? ?????? ?????????????? (???????????) ?????, ( ??????? , ???????? ????? ????????????? ???? ??????? ???????????????? ??????????????. [26] ????????? ?????????????, ??????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?????-????? ????????????????? ????????? ??????????????????? ??????????????. [27] ?????? ????????? ?????????, ??????? ??????????? ????????? (?????? ????.??. 1000 ) ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? , ???? ????? ?????????????? ????? ???????????????? ???? ??????? ??????????????????????. [28] (?????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ??????????????? ??? - ????????? ???????????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????. ?????????????? "?????? ????" ????? ?????? ?????? ?y?ma ayas (????? ????) ????? ?????????????????). ?????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ????.??. 1100 ???? ????.??. 600 ??? ????????????????????. [27] ? ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ???????????? ????????. ??? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ?????????.

??????????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ????????: ??????????? , ????? ??????? , and ??????? ???????
??????????? ???????????? ??????-???? ???????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????. ??? ???????????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????????? ?????????

???????? ???????????, BCE 1000 ????????? ???????, ????? ??????????????? ??? ??????????? ????????????? ?????????. ????? ????????? ???, ??????? ???????, ????? ???????????? ???????????????????????. ????.??. 500-??? ??????-???? ???????????? ??????, ???????? ???????????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????????? ???????????. ?? ??????????? ????? ???????????? - ???? , ????? , ???? , ??? , ????? (????), ???? , ???? , ???? (???), ???? , ???????? , ???? (??????), ??????? , ??????? , ?????? , ???????? , ??????? ???????????????? ??. ?????? ????? ????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????????? ????????????????? ???. ??????? ???????????? ???????????????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ??? ???????????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ?????????. ??? ?????????? ???????????????????, ????? ????? ???????? ????????????? ?????????????. ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????, ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????????????. ? ??????? ??????????? ????? ????.??. 500/400 ??? ( ???? ????????? ???????) ????????????? ???? ??????????????. ????, ??????, ?????, ??? ???????????????? ? ???? ???????????. [29]

? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????????????, ??????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????????. ??? ??????????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ??????????????? (BCE 600-400 ???????) ??????????? - ?????????? ???????????? ????????????????? ??????????? ???????? ????? ?????????? - ??????????????? ????? ?????????. ??????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ??? ?????? ?????????????. ????????, ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ??? ??????????????? ????????????????? ????????. ????????? ??? ?????????????? ? ??????? ???????????????. BCE 537-?, ?????????? ????? "??????" ??????????, ?????? - ???????? ??? ????? ????????????????????. ?????? ??? ???????????? ??????? (??? ?????????????? 24-?? ??? ??????????? ) ??????? ??? ??????????? ??????????????, ??? ???????? ?????? ???. [30] ?????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???????????????. ??????? ??? ??? ???????????? ????????????????? ????? ???????????????. (????? ?????????????? ????????, ????????????? ??????). [31] ????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????? ????????????????? ????????????? ??????????????. ?? ??????? ????????? ??????????????? , ??? ????????????? ????? ?????????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ????????. ??????? - ????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????????????? ??????? ????????????????????. ?????????, ?????????? ???????, ????? ???????????? ???????-????? ?????????? ??????????????????????.

????????????? ???????? ????????????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????-??????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? , ???????? , ????????? , ???? ???? , ?????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????.

???????, ???????? ?????????? [ ????????? ]

????????????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????, ???????? ???????????? ?????? ??? ???. ??? ??????????? ???????????????????? ????????? ?????????????????.
???? ?????: ??????????? ?????????? , ????????-???????? , ?????????? ??????????
??????????????? ??????????
"The Birth of Buddha." Buddhist sculpture slab excavated at Lorian Tangai, Peshawar district. Photo: Alexander Caddy, 1896. British Library.

?????? ??????????? ???????, ????.??. 520-? ??????????????? ??????? ???????????????? ????? ?????? (???????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????) ??????? ??????????? ????????????????? ???????? ????? ?????. ?????? ????? ???????????? ??? ????????. [32] ????.??. 334-? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????, ??????? ???????????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ?????. ?????, ????????? ?????????? (???????? ???????????? ???) ??????? ????? ( ???? ) ???????? ???????????????, ??????????? ?????????? ??????????????; [33] ?????? ??????????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ( ?????? ) ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????????. ?????????? ??????? ????????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????. ?????????? ???????????? ????? ????????? ????????????????????? ???????.

???????, ???????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????. ?????????????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????????? ???? ????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????????????. ????? ?????, ???????? ??????? ???????????????? ??????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????, ???????, ???????????, ???????? ?????????????? ??? ??????? ????. ??? ??? ????? ????????????? - ???????? ????????????? - ????? ????. ????.?. 5-?? ????????????? ???????? ? ???????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????? ????????????.

??? ?????????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ??? ??????????

??????? ????????????? ?????? ??? ?????????? ?? ???????????????? ????? ???????????????????????????. ?????????? ?????????? BCE 684-? ??????? ????????????? ??? ?????????? ???????????. ?????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????????. ???????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ??????. ? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????. ????????? BCE 424-? ???? ??????? ??????????????????. ????????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????.

????? ?????????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ????? ??????????
???? ?????: ??????????? ?????? , ?????? ?????
????? ????????????????? ????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????????, ????-?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?????????? ????????????????? ?????

BCE 321-?, ????????????????? ??????????? ????????????????? , ?????????? ????????????? ?????, ????? ???????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ??????????. ???????? ???????????????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ????? ??? ???????????????? ????? ????????????????. ??????????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????????? ????? ?????? ????????????????? ?????, ?????????? ???????????? ????????????????? ??????? ??????, ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????????. ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????????? ????? ???????????????????????? ?????????.

????????????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????. ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????????????????? ??????????????. ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????? - ? ?????????????? ??????????? ????????????????????? ????? ?????????. ????????????? ?????????? ????? ???? ???????????????? ????????????? ???????. ??????????? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????. ????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????????? ????????, ????? ???????????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????. ???????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????. ???????? ???? ????, ????????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????????? ??????? ???????????. ?????? ????????? ????? ????????????? ??????? ???? , ????????????? ???? ??????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???????????. ??? ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ????????????. ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????? ????????????? ?????????.

?????????? ???????? ??? ?????????? [ ????????? ]

????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????, BCE 185-?, ???????? ????????? ?????? 50 ??????????? ????, ???? ?????????? ??????????. ????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?????????????????, ??? ?????????? ??????? ??????? BCE 71 ???? BCE 26 ??? ???????. BCE 30-?, ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????????. ???? ????????????????? ????????? ????, ??????? ??????????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????.

??????? ?????? ????????????? - ??????? ???? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????????? ????????? ?????????????
???? ?????: ?????? ?????????? , ??????? ??????? , ????? ?????????? , ????????? ?????? , ??????? ?????????? ( {{ See also }} ??????? ????????????? ????? ??????????????????. ?????? ?????? ???????)
????? ??????? ??????????

?????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????????????. ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? BCE 230-?? ???????????, ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???????. ?????? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???????????????. ? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????? . BCE 2-?? ?????????????? ACE 3-?? ????????????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????????????? ??????? ?????????? . ?????? ??????? ??????? ????.?. 1-?? ?????????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ????????. ??? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????, ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????. ? ?????????????? ?????? ???????????? (???????? ??????????????? ??????) ?????? ??????????????? ??????????. ?????????? ?????????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????????????????? ????????? ?????? (ACE 35-405). ??? ?????-????????? ???????????????????. ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? (???????) ????????????????? ???.

??????? ???????????? ?????? ????, ????? ?????????????, ??????? ?????????? , ??????? ???? , ??? ?????????? , ????? ?????????? , ????????? ???? ?????????? , ?????? , ???????? ???????? ?? ??????????????? ???????. ?? ?????? ??????????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??????????. ?????? ?????????? ?????????????????? ? ????????????? ?????????, ??????? ????????????????? ?????? ??????. ???????????????? ???, ???, ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???????????????.

??????????????? ????? ??????????? [ ????????? ]

???? ?????: ?????-???????? ?????????? , ?????-?????? , ?????-??????? ?????? , ?????-???????????
?????-???????? ????????????????? ????????? "????????" ??????????? I (BCE 205?171), ????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????????????????.

??????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ????? ????????????? ?????-??????????? , ?????-?????? (????), ?????-????????? , ?????-??????????? ?????? ????????????. ????? ??????????? ?????-???????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????-?????????? ??????? ??????????? BCE 180-? ???????? ????????????, ????????? ????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????????. ????? ??????????????????? ???????? ? ?????????? 30-??? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????. ????????? ??? ??????? ??????.

????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????-?????? ?????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ??????. ?????????? ?????? ?????????, ??????, ????????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ??????????. ????? ??? ?????????? ?????????????????? ???????????????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????? [34] . ?????-???????? ??????? ( ?????? ) ??? ????????????? ?????-?????? . ??? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???????????????????? , ???????? ????????? , ??????? , ????????? , ???????? , ??????? ??????????????????????, ?????? ?????? ??????, ????????? ??????, ?????????, ???????? ?????????????????????? ????????. ?????? ?????????? BCE 2-?? ?????????? ???? BCE 1-?? ????????????? ?????????. ????????????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????-??????? ( ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????????) ???????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????? ????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????????. ????? ??????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????????????????? ??????????????. ????????? ???????, ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????-????????? ????????????? ????? ????.

??????????????? ???? ???????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ??????????????? ???? ????????
???? ?????????? ????????????? ?????, ??????????? ??????? ??????? ????????????. ?????????? ???????? .

???????????? ?????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????????? ??????????????? ???? ????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????. ????????? ????????? ?????????? ????????????? ???? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????????????.

BCE 130-? ????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????????. ???????????? ?????????????????? (11.5.12. [35] ), ????????????? ?????????, ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????????????? 120 ???????? ??? ?????????????. ? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????, ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ????? ????????????????????. ????????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????? ?????? (NH VI.101) ?????? ???????????????:

"??????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????, ???, ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????????: ????? ??????? ?????????????????? ????????????? ??? ??????????? ???. ? ?????????????? ????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????????? ????????????? ??? ????????????????????????"

?  ??????, ??????????? ???????? 12.41.84. [36]

? ??????? ???????????? ???????????? ACE ?????? ??????????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ???????????????????????.

????? ??????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ????? ??????????
?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????????????, ????? ???????????? ????????.

ACE 4, 5 ?????????????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????. ?????? ???????????????? ??????????? ????? ????????????? ? ??????? ?????? ????????, ????????, ????????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ??????????????. ???????????? I , ???????????? , ???????????? II ???????????????? ????? ??????????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????????. ??? ??????????? ???????? ? ??????? ??????? ????????????????????. ????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ? ?????????? ??????????. 6-?? ??????????? ????? ????????????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ????????. ????? ?????????????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????????????? ??????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????. ? ??????? ?????????? ??????????????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ??????????.

????????? ??????????? ???? ????? ?????????????? ???? 5-?? ?????????????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????. ??? ???????? ????????? ??????????. ????? ????????????????? ????????? ????????? ????????????. ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????. ?????????????? ?????? ?????????? ? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????????????.

???????? ?????? ????????????? ? ?????? ???????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????????? ????????? ?????????????
???? ?????: ???? , ????????? ???????? , ?????? , ????????? , ??? ?????????? ( {{ See also }} ??????? ????????????? ????? ??????????????????. ?????? ?????? ???????)
??? ???????????, ???????? ????????
??????? ???????????, ?????

?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? 7-?? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ?????????. ??????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????. ? ??????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????? ?????????????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ????????? ?????????. ?????? ??????, ???????????? ???????? ???????????? (?????????, ????????, ??????) ? ???????? ???????? ???????.

????? ????????????????? ????????? ???? ???????? ???? 7-?? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????????? ?????????. ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????????. 7-?? ?????????????? 9-?? ????????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????????? ??????????: ??????????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????? , ???????? ???? , ?????????? ??????????? . ???????????? ??? ??????? ??? ????????????????? ?????????? ???????????. ????????? ????? ?????????????????? ?????. ? ???????????????????????? ???? ??????? ????????? - ????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ????????????? ??? ???????????????, ???????????? ??????????????? ??????? ????????????? ???????????????, ?????????. ???????????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? 6-?? ??????????? ????????????? ???? ???????. ???????????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????. ??????????? ????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????????????????????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????????. ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ??????? 7-?? ?????????????? ?????????? ???? 11-?? ?????????????? ??????? ??? ???????. ??? ????????????????? ???????????, ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ??? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???? ????????????????? ? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????.

????.?. 550 ???? 770 ??? ?????????????? ????? ????????????????, ????.?. 970 ???? 1190 ??? ?????????????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????? ????????????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? . ?????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????????. ??????? ????????????????? ??????????, ?????? ?????? ????????????????? ?????????? ???????? , ?????????? ?????????? , ??????????? ????? ????? , ?????? ?????????????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????????? 12-?? ?????????????? ???????????? ???????????????. ??????????????????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???????????? ????????? ??? ???????????? ?????? ?????. ? ????????????????? ????????????? ??????? ????????????????? ????????? ???????????. ? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ??????????????. ?? ????????????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????????????. ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ??????????. ??????????? ???????????????????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ????????? ???? ???????????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????. [37] [38] ????????, ???????? ????????, ???????? ??????????? ?????? 14-?? ?????????????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????????. 14-?? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ? ???????????? ????????. ?????? ??????? ?????????? (????? ??????) ???????? ????????? ( ??????? ??????????) ????????????????????. ? ????? ????????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????. ??? ????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ????????. ?????? ????????????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????.

???????? ?????????????? [ ????????? ]

?????????? ???????? ????? . ???? ???????????? ????????-???-??? ?????? ??? ? ????????????? ??? ??????????.
?????? ?????: ?????????? ???????? ?????????????
???? ?????: ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????? , ?????? ???????????? , ??????? ??????????????

?????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????? ????-??????? ?????????????? ????, ? ?????????? ???????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????????. ?????? ????????????? ??????? ???????????????? ???????????? ????????????? ???????????? ???????????????????????. ??????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????????????. ?? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????????????? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ????????????? ( ?????????????? ) ??????? ???????????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ?????? ?????. ??????, ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????????????????, ????????????? ?????????, ???????????????. ??? ??????? ??????????????? ??????????????????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????????. ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????????????????, ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????, ????????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????. ???????????? ?????? ???????????? , ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????.

?????? ???????????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????? ????????????

12-?? 13-?? ?????????????? ?????? , [39] ????????? , ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? 13-?? ?????????????? ???????????, ??? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????????. [40] ????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ????????????. ?????? ?????????????????????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????????????? ????? ???????????? ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????????. ????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ????????????. ???????? ????? ??????????????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ???????????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ???????????????? ??????????. ???????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ??? ???????? ???????????. ????????? ????? "?????-???????" ??????? ???????? ? ????? ????????????????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????, ??????, ????????, ???, ?????????? ????????? ????????????????? ??????????????. ?????? ???????????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????????? ???????, ???????, ???? ????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ????? ??????? ????????????? ???????????? ?????? ??? ?????????????? ????? ??????????????. (????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ??????????? "??????", ?????????? "?????" ???????). ??? ????? ???????????? ( ???????? ???? , (1236-1240)) ???????? ????????? ?? ?????-????????? ????????????? ?????? ????????????.

????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????? ????? ????????????, ???????-????? ????????????? ????? 1398-? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????. [41] ????? ??????????? ????????? 1398 ?????? 17 -?? ???????????????. ?????????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ????????????, ???????????, ?????? ?????? ???????????. [42]

???? ???????? [ ????????? ]

???? ????????????????? 17-?? ???????????? ????? ????????
???? ??? , ???????? ?????????
?????? ????????: ???? ???????? and ???? ??????????
???? ?????: ???? , ??????? , ?????? , ??????? , ?? ???? ( {{ See also }} ??????? ????????????? ????? ??????????????????. ?????? ?????? ???????)

1526-? ??????????????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ( ????????-??????? ) ??????????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????. ? ?????????? 200 ??????????? ?????????. [43] 1600-??? ??????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????? ????????; 1707-?? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ????. 1857-?? ???????????? ???????? (?????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????????????) ???? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????. ? ???????? ????????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????????????????? - ?????? ???????????? ???? ????????????? ??????? ???????????????????? ???. ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????????????. ????? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ??? ?????? ???????????????? ??????. ???? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????????????????? ????? ?????? ???????????????? ????? ????????. ???? ?????????? ????????????? ?? ????? ??????????????? ? ????? ??????????????? ????????????. ????? ????? ???? ????????????????? ?????? ?????????? ????????. ???????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ????????????????? ???? ??????????. 1739-? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ?????????? ???????????????. ? ?????????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????, ???? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????????????? ????. [44]

???? ???????????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ?????????????????, ???????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????????????????. ? ???????? ???????????, ?????? ???????? ???????? - ??????????????????????? ????????? ????????????? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ??????. ???????? ????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????? ???? ????????????????. ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?????????. ?????? ????? ? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????????????. ????????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ("????" ????? ??? ????????????). ?????????????? ??? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ????? ????????????. ???? ????????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ????? ?????????????? ??????. ????? ???????? ??????-??????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????????? ?????????. ????????? ????????? ?????-???? ??????????? ???????????. ????????? ??????? ???? ????????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ????????? ????????, ????????? ???????? ????????? ??? ????????????????. ???????????? ?? ???????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????.

????????? ???????? ????????? ????????? [ ????????? ]

???? ?????: ???? ?????????? , ????? ?????? , ????????? ?????? , ???? ?????????? , ???????? ??????????
??????, ????.?. 1760-?

???? ??????????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???????????????? ????? ????????? ??????????????? (?? ???????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????) ????, ???????? ?????????? ??????????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????. ???? ?????? ???????????? ??????????????????? ????? ?????????. 18-?? ????????????, ??? ???????????? ???????????? ???? ????????????? ?????????. 1760-??? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????????????? ????? ????????????????? ??????????. ??????? ??????????? ?????????? (1761) ?????? ?? ??????????? ???????????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ? ??????????? ??????? ????????. ????????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? II-?? ??????? ??????-???? ?????????? ????????????? ???????????????.

?????? ????.?. 1400-? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????????? ?????. ??????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????????. ????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ????? ??????-????? ??????????? ??????????. ??? ???????? ??????????, ???? ???? ?????????????, ???????????? ?????????? ?????????????????????. ? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????????, ????? ???????? ????????? ??????. ?????????????? ???????? ???? ?????????? 1591-? ????????? ???????????. ??????????? ???? ????????? ????, ??? ???? ???????????? ???? ?? 1724-? ????????????? ???? ?????????????? ????? ????????????? ?????-??-??????? ??? ?????????????. ???????? ????????????? 1724 ???? 1948 ??? ????????? ???????. ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????????? (princely states) ???.

???? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????????????. ??????? ????????????? ????????????? ???????????????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????. ???? ????????????????? ???? ????????? ??????-???? ????????? ???. 18-?? ??????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????. ?? ????? ???????? ???????????? ????? ????????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????????.

???????? ???????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ???????? ??????

???????????? ???????????????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????????????? ?????? ? ??? 1498-? ?????????? ??????????? ?????-???????? ????????????? ???????????.. [45] ????? ???????? ???????? ??? , ???? , ???? , ????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????. ????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ??????????????. ????????????? 1619-? ????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????????. [46] . ??????? ????????????????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????????????????? ????? ?????????????????? ????????????. ? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ????????????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????. ???????????? , ????????? ??????????????? ??????? ????????, ??? , ???? , ???? ??????????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????????.

?????????? ???? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ?????????? ????
?????????? ????????????????? ????????, ????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????????????????

???? ????????????? ??????? 1617-? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ????. [47] ?????? ?????? ???????????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????????????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????????? ????????? - ?????????? ????????????????? ???????. [48] ???????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ???????? ????????????????????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????????????? ? ????????? ??????????????? ????????? ????????. ??? 1757-?? ?????? ????????????????? ???????. ? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???????????????. ????????????????? ????????? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????????????????? ???. ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? 1757-? ???????? ???????? '??????? ??????? ??????????'. [49] 1764-?? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ????????????? ?? ??? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????????????????? ????????? ????. ??? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????????. ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??? ???? ?????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????. [50] ???????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ??? ?????????? ????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ????????????. ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????????? ????????? ????????. 1850-????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????????, ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ???????????????? ????? ?????? ?????????????. ?????????? ????? ????????????????????? ??????? - ?? ???????????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ???????? ????? ???????????????????????.

?????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????????????????? 1857-?? ??????? ????? . ??? "??????? ???", "?????? ???", "?????? ???????????? ????", ????????????? ??????????????. ??? ??????? ????????????? ?????????????? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ? ???????? ????????????. ? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????????????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????????????? ??????????. ?????????????? ?????? ????????? ??????, ???? ???????? ??????????. ? ?????????? ???? ????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????, ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???????. ?????????? ???????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ????????????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????.

??????? ???????????????? [ ????????? ]

?????? ?????: ??????? ????????????????
????????? ????????? , 1937

??????? ??????????????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????????? ???? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????, [51] ??????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????????????????. ? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????????? ??????????????. [52] 1921 ???? ???????? ????????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ????? ????????????? ?????????????. ?????????? ??????????????? ??????? ????????????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????

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Part of a series on the

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?????????? ???? (1858?1947)
??????? ???????????? ???? (1857 - 1947)
?????????? ?????? (1947)
??????????????????????? ????
?????????? ????????? ??????? (1947-49)
1947 ?????-????????? ??????
??????? ???:?????? ????? (1956)
???????? ????????? (1956- )
1965 ?????-????????? ??????
??????????? (1970s)
1971 ?????-????????? ??????
????????????? (1975-77)
????????? ???????? (1984)
1987 ???-?????? ????????
?????? 1990-????
???????? ?????? (1999)
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This box:


??????????????????????, ??????????????? ??????????????? ??????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ????????????. ?????????? ?????? ???????????????????. ??? ?????? ????????????? ???????? ???? ????????????? ???? ????????????????? ???????????????. ?????????? ??????? ????????????????????, ?????? ??????? ??????????????? ??? ????????????????. 1921-? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ??? ???????????? [ ?????? ????????? ] . ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??????. ?????????? ????????? ??????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????????.

?????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????, ???????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ???????????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????. ?????????? ???? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ???????????, ????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????. ??????????? ???????????? ?????? (?????? ???????) ???? ???? ????. ? ???? ????? ?????????????? ???????????? ????? ???. ????????????? 1942-? ?????? ????? ????? ??????????.

1947-? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ??? ?????? , ???????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????? ????????????? ???????. ??????????? ???????? ??????? , ????? ????????????? ??????????? ???? ???????, ??????????, ?????????? ??????????????? ???????, ?????, ?????? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????? ????? ???????????????????. ? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????????????. [53] ? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?????????????????????? ??????? ???? ???????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????. 12 ???????????? ??????????, ??????????, ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????, ????????? ????? ???????????????????? ?????? ??????. [53]

?????? [ ????????? ]

  1. ↑ "Achaemenians" . Jona Lendering, Livius.org . Retrieved 2008-01-09 .
  2. ↑ Plutarchus, Mestrius (1919). Plutarch's Lives . London: William Heinemann. pp. Ch. LX. ISBN   0674991109 . Retrieved 2008-01-09 . {{ cite book }} : Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help )
  3. ↑ "Mind over Matter" . Front line group, floonet.com . Retrieved 2008-08-06 .
  4. ↑ "History in Chronological Order" . Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on 2010-07-23 . Retrieved 2008-01-09 .
  5. ↑ "Pakistan" . Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2012-12-12 . Retrieved 2008-01-09 .
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 ??.?????. ?????; ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????????. ????? ??? ???? ???????????? ??????????????????. ??.??. ?????? ??????????????????
  7. ↑ Mudur, G.S ( March 21 , 2005 ). "Still a mystery" . KnowHow . The Telegraph . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . {{ cite news }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help )
  8. ↑ "The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India" . Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies . Geological Survey of India . 20 September 2005 . Archived from the original on 2007-06-19 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help )
  9. ↑ Gaur, A. S. ( July 10 , 1999 ). "Ancient shorelines of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilization (Late Mid-Holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences" . Current Science . 77 (1): 180?185. ISSN   0011-3891 . Retrieved 2007-05-06 . {{ cite journal }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help )
  10. ↑ "Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan" . Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield . Retrieved 2007-12-01 .
  11. ↑ Murray, Tim (1999). Time and archaeology . London; New York: Routledge. p. 84. ISBN   0415117623 .
  12. ↑ Coppa, A. ( 6 April 2006 ). "Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry" (PDF) . Nature . 440 : 755?756. doi : 10.1038/440755a . Retrieved 2007-11-22 . {{ cite journal }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help )
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Possehl, G. L. (1990). "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization" . Annual Review of Anthropology . 19 : 261?282. doi : 10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401 . ISSN   0084-6570 . Retrieved 2007-05-06 . {{ cite journal }} : Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help )
  14. ↑ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2005). The Ancient South Asian World . Oxford University Press . ISBN   0195174224 . Archived from the original on 2012-11-20 . Retrieved 2008-07-27 . {{ cite book }} : Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help )
  15. ↑ Rendell, H. R. (1989). Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan . British Archaeological Reports International Series. Cambridge University Press . p. 364. {{ cite book }} : Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help )
  16. ↑ Jarrige, C. (1995). Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975 to 1985 - From the Neolithic to the Indus Civilization . Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France. {{ cite book }} : Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help )
  17. ↑ Feuerstein, Georg (1995). In search of the cradle of civilization: new light on ancient India . Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books. pp. pp. 147. ISBN   0835607208 . {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( |author= suggested) ( help )
  18. ↑ Kenoyer, J. Mark (1998). The Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization . Oxford University Press. ISBN   0195779401 .
  19. ↑ Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51?52.
  20. ↑ Leshnik, Lawrence S. (1968). "The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View" . American Anthropologist, New Series, . 70 (5): 911?922. doi : 10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00070 . ISSN   1548-1433 . Retrieved 2007-05-06 . {{ cite journal }} : Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help ) CS1 maint: extra punctuation ( link )
  21. ↑ Kenoyer, Jonathan ( 15 September 1998 ). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization . USA: Oxford University Press. pp. p96. ISBN   0195779401 . {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help ) ; Check date values in: |date= ( help )
  22. ↑ The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India . Retrieved on May 12 , 2007 .
  23. ↑ See Demise of the Aryan Invasion Theory by Dr. Dinesh Agarwal
  24. ↑ Mallory, J.P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archeology and Myth (Reprint edition (April 1991) ed.). London: Thames & Hudson . pp. p 43. ISBN   0500276161 . The great majority of scholars insist that the Indo-Aryans were intrusive into northwest India {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help )
  25. ↑ India: Reemergence of Urbanization . Retrieved on May 12 , 2007 .
  26. ↑ Valmiki (1990). Goldman, Robert P (ed.). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda . Ramayana of Valmiki. Princeton, New Jersey : Princeton University Press . pp. p. 23. ISBN   069101485X . {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help ) ; Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help )
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History . New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. p. A11. ISBN   0070483698 . {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help )
  28. ↑ M. WItzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Kolver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. Munchen : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, [1] Archived 2020-10-26 at the Wayback Machine .
  29. ↑ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History . New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. p. A107. ISBN   0070483698 . {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help )
  30. ↑ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BCE. Page 114
  31. ↑ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1-86064-148-2 - “The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.” Page 115
  32. ↑ Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art (2004). "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550?330 B.C.E)" . Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art . Retrieved 2007-05-19 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help )
  33. ↑ Fuller, J.F.C. ( February 3 , 2004 ). "Alexander's Great Battles". The Generalship of Alexander the Great (Reprint ed.). New York: Da Capo Press. pp. 188?199. ISBN   0306813300 . {{ cite book }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help )
  34. ↑ "CHAPTER 8 ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR". Social Science - Class VI - Our Pasts-I . New Delhi: NCERT. 2007. p. 86. ISBN   8174504931 . {{ cite book }} : Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= ( help )
  35. ↑ "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia , and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies , only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12. Source
  36. ↑ "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.
  37. ↑ Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1 .
  38. ↑ Search for India's ancient city . BBC News . Retrieved on June 22 , 2007 .
  39. ↑ See P. Hardy's review of Srivastava, A. L. "The Sultanate of Delhi (Including the Arab Invasion of Sindh), A. D. 711-1526", appearing in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , University of London, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1952), pp. 185-187.
  40. ↑ "Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India" . Archived from the original on 2008-04-23 . Retrieved 2008-08-03 .
  41. ↑ "Timur - conquest of India" . Archived from the original on 2007-10-12 . Retrieved 2008-08-03 .
  42. ↑ "Timur's Invasion" . Archived from the original on 2008-09-08 . Retrieved 2008-08-03 .
  43. ↑ "The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)" . Archived from the original on 2013-09-27 . Retrieved 2008-08-03 .
  44. ↑ Iran in the Age of the Raj
  45. ↑ "Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497-1498 CE" . Internet Modern History Sourcebook . Paul Halsall. 1998. Archived from the original on 2011-08-28 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help ) From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26-40.
  46. ↑ "Indian History - Important events: History of India. An overview" . History of India . Indianchild.com. Archived from the original on 2011-08-24 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 .
  47. ↑ "The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 1617 A.D." Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE . Internet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall. 1998. Archived from the original on 2014-08-18 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |month= ignored ( help ) From: James Harvey Robinson , ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333?335.
  48. ↑ "KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) : HISTORY" . Calcuttaweb.com. Archived from the original on 2007-05-10 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 .
  49. ↑ Rickard, J. ( 1 November 2000 ). "Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725-1774" . Military History Encyclopedia on the Web . historyofwar.org . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help )
  50. ↑ Prakash, Om. "The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India" (PDF) . Global Economic History Network . Economic History Department, London School of Economics . pp. 3?40 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 .
  51. ↑ Mohsin, K.M. "Canning, (Lord)" . Banglapedia . Asiatic Society of Bangladesh . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . Indian Council Act of 1861 by which non-official Indian members were nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council.
  52. ↑ "Minto-Morley Reforms" . storyofpakistan.com . Jin Technologies. June 1 2003 . Retrieved 2007-05-07 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |date= ( help )
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Symonds, Richard (1950). The Making of Pakistan . London: Faber and Faber . pp. p 74. OCLC   1462689 . ASIN B0000CHMB1. at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless {{ cite book }} : |pages= has extra text ( help )

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