????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? - ??????? ????? ??????, ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ? ?????? ?? ????? , ??????? ?? ? ???? , ???? ? ?? ?????? ? ??????? . ?????? ?? ????? ?????? , ?????? ? ??????? .

???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?-6,500 ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ? ??????? , ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????.

??? ????? ????, ???????? ????? ?????? ??????, ??? ? ??????? . ?? ?? ?????? , ????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ?????? ????? ? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ?????. ?????? ??????????? ? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ? ?????? ????????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? . ??? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????.

?? ? ????? ?????? , ???? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?-25 ????"? . ???? ?????? ??????? ? ???? , ?????? ? ??? ?-13 ????"? , ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ????? . ??????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????, ???? ????? ??????? ??????, ?? ????? ? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????.

?????? ???????, ????? ???? ??????, ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ? ?????? ??????? ? ?? . ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? , ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????, ??????? ???? ????????? ?????? ??????. ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????? ???? ????????? , ????? ????? ???? ?-13 ????"? ?? ????? ? ????? ???????, ??? ??????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????, ??? ??? ??????.

????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????: ”?????????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???????” ( ??? ?????? , ??? ?"? , ???? ?"? ). ?????? ?? ?? ??"? ?????? ? ???? , ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????. ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ???????, ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???????. ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????: ”???????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ???????????” ( ??? ???? , ??? ?' , ???? ?"? ). ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????????, ???? ?????, ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????. ^{[ ???? ???? ]}

???????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????, ??????? ?????? ????, ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???. ?? ?? ?????, ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????, ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????. ?????? ???????? ?? ???????? ????????, ??? ??? ?????? ? ???? ????.

?????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ????? ?????? ????? ??????

? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????. ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? 309 ????"? , ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????, ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ???. ??????? ????? ????? ??? ??????, ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????. ???? ?? ?? ????? ???, ????? ?????? ?? ? ??? ?-19 . ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??????, ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ????????, ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??.

????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ? ??? , ?????? ?? ? ????? ? ???? ??? , ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ? ???????? ????.

??? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????, ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??. ????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????, ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ^[1] . ???? ?? ???? ?-12 ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ? ????? , ?? ???? 1163 ????? ? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? "??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ? ???? ?? ", ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ? ????? , ???? ?????? ???? ????? , ????? , ?????? , ????? ??????, ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? " ?????-?????? " (Barber Surgeon).

????? ??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ? ???? ?-18 ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????, ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????. ????, ?? ?????? ???? ?-20 ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????. ???? ?????? ???? (G.V. Black), ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ?-19 , ??? ?????? ???? ?????, ?????? ?? ??????? ??????, ???????? ?? ????. ????? ???? ???? ???, ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????, ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ???????. ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ??? ?"? ?. ?. ????, ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ^[1] ??? ?- 1844 . ?? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ??????? , ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????, ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????, ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??????.

???? 1900 ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? 1951 ???? ????? ????-????? ????????? ??????-?????? .

????? ??????? ???? ?-21 [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????, ?? ??? ?????? " ???? ?????? " (Stomatologist). ??????? ???????, ????? ? ???? ?????? ?? ????? , ??? ????? ?? ????? ????, ????, ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??????, ??????? ????? "???? ??????" ?? "Dentist", ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? .

????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????-??????? ???, ?? ???????? ????, ????? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????, ???? ??? ?????? ????????. ??-???, ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????. ??????, ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? D.M.D ( ?????? ?????? ??????) ?? D.D.S (?????? ????????? ??????). ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? 6 ????.

????? ??????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ??????, ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? . ????, ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? (?-9% ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????, ??-0.75% ?? ??"? ) ^{[ ???? ???? ]} , ?? ?-95% ?????? ?? ?????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ???? ????? ????, ????? ???? ? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? , ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????. ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ? ?? , ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?-34% ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} .

???? 2010 ?????? ????? ?????, ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ?"? ???? ????? , ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ?????? 190,000 ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?????. ?-26 ????? 2011 ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????, ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? 10 ^[2] . ??? ???? 2019 ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? 18 ^[3] .

?? ?-8% ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ?????? ????? ??????? ? ?????? ????? ????? ?????. ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????, ??? ?? ?? ???? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??????. ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ? ????? ?????  ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????. ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? (??????, ??????, ?????? ????), ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????.

????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????, ?????? ????? ??????, ????? ?????? ??????. ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????, ?? ???? ???? ?????, ????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?????.

????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? .

?????? ????? ?????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ^{[4] [5]} ?????? ?? ????, ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??????: ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ????. ????? ? ?????? ????? ?????? , ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????, ???? ????-????? ????? ??????, ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? 3 ????:

??? ???-?????

???? ?????? ?? ???????? - ?? ?????? ???? ????? ? ???? ?????? , ??? ???? ? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ????????? ??????. ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? , ?????? , ???????? , ???????? , ??????? , ?????????? , ?????????? ????. ?????? ???????? ???, ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????, ????: ??????? ???? ????? ???????, ???????? ?? ???? , ???????? ???????, ?????? ???????, ????????? ???????, ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? (??? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ????? ????? ?????????). ?????? ?? ??? ??, ????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? (B.Sc.Med.).

??? ?????

???? ???? ?? ???????? - ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????, ???? ?????????? (?????? ????), ???????????? (???"? ?????), ????????? (???"? ??????) ? ????????? ?? ???? ????, ??????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????. ?????, ?? ???????? ????????, ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????, ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ????????. ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ????, ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????. ???, ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????, ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????. ?????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????, ????????? ?????? ???? "?????? ?????? ??????" (DMD) ?????? ???? ??????? ??????.

?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ^[6] , ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????, ????? ??????? ????????? ??????.

???? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ??????? ???, ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????, ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??????. ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????, ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??????, ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} , ????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??????????. ???? ???, ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???"?, ????????????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????. ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? , ???????? , ? ?????? . ?????? ???, ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ^[7] , ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ^[8] , ?? ????? ?????? ????.

????? ???????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? ??????? ?????? (?-4,000) ?????? ?????? ?????. ????? ???, ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? - ???????, ??????? ??????, ????? ?????, ?????? ??????? ???????. ???-???, ?????? ?????? ???? ?-4,700 ?????? ?????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} .

?????? ????? ??????? ???"? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?? ????? ??"? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????. ???????? ??????? ?????, ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????, ??????? ???????? ???????, ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????, ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??????, ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ????:

• ????? ???? - ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? (????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???, ???????, ?????? ???? , ?????, ? ?????? ), ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? , ?????, ????? ??? ? ????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ???????. ???? ???? ? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????.
• ????? ???? ?????? - ?????, ?????, ?????? ??????. ?? 6 ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? (3 ????? ?????) ???? 3 ????? ??? ???? ????? ???? .
• ????? ??? - ????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ?????, ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? (???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??????).

????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????.

• ????? ??????? - ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????.

?????? ? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ??? ??? 1976, ????? ???? ????????, ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ??????, ???? ????? ^{[ ???? ???? ]} ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ????????, ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????. ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?-4 ?????:

• ???? 1: ???? ???? ????, ????? ?????.
• ???? 2: ?? 5 ?????? (????? ??? ?? ???????) ????? ???????.
• ???? 3: ??? 5 ?-10 ?????? (????? ??? ?? ???????), ????????? (????? ????? ????).
• ???? 4: ??? ?-10 ?????? (????? ??? ?? ???????), ????? ????? ??? ?????, ?????? ??????? ?????????, ??? ???????? ???????????? (?????? ????, ????? ?????? ????) ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????.

????? ??????? ?????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????????. ?? ???? ?????? ????, ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????, ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???????. ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? (??? 4-5 ????), ????? ????? ??????, ????? ?????? ?????. ??????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ???????, ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????. ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????: ??????? ??????, ???? ?????? ?????? (????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????), ????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???????.

????? ?????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ?? ????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ???, ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???. ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????????, ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???????. ????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????????. ???? ?????? ?? ???? ? ???????????? , ????? ??????, ???-?????????, ?????????? , ?????????? , ????? ?????? , ?????? ??????, ????? ?????? ????? ????? ? ???????? .

????? ?????? ?????? ("?????????" ????) [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ????? ?????? ??????

????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ??????, ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ?????? ?????? (???? ???) ?????????? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ????? ? ????? ????? , ???? ???? ??????, ???? ???????? ? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ????? (?????), ????? ? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ????? .

?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ? ??? . ????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? , ???? ????? ? ????? ???? ???????, ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????. ??? ??, ????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????, ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????. ??????, ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????, ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????, ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????. ???????, ????? ????????? ????? ?????, ????? ???? ? ????? ?????? ?????, ???? ????????? ??????, ?????? ????- ??????? ???????. ?????? ??????????? ????? ????? ????.

?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?????? ? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? - ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???. ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????.

????? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???????: ????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????, ????? ?????? ????? ???, ???? ??????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ????? ?????? ?????? ?????. ????? ?? ??? ??? - ?????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????, ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???. ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????, ???? (???? ???????? , ?????? ????), ????? ???????? ????? (???? ???? , ???? ??? ????), ????? ?? ??????? (???? ???? ????? , ???? , ??????? ????), ????? ?? ?????? ???? (??? ?????, ???? ?? ????), ??????.

??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????, ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? (???? ????? ?????) ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? (???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ???), ?????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ?? ? ????? .

??????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ???????????

???? ????????????, ?? ????? ??????, ???? ? ??? ??????? ?? ??????, ????????? ???? ??????? ???????. ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? (????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????), ?? ??????? ??????, ???? ????? ?????. ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????, ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? (????, ??????, ????? ???????). ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???, ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????. ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????, ?? ?? ????? ??????, ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????. ??????, ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ( ????? ??? ) ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????, ?? ???? ?????? ????? ????. ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????. ????? ?? ?????? ????????, ???? ???? ??????, ?????? ????? ?????-???????.

????????? ?? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???????? ?? ??? ??????? (Maxillofacial Surgery) ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????, ?????, ???????? ????? ??? ?????, ???? ??????, ????? ???? ?????.

????? ?????? ???????:

• ???????? ????????????? -?????? ???????? ???? ? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????, ?????? ????????? ????? ??
• ????? ?????? ????????? ????? (?????? ????????) ???? ?????.
• ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? (????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???) ???? ?????.
• ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????.
• ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????????????? (????? ????).
• ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????????
• ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? (??????).
• ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????.
• ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????.

??????? ??????? ??????????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????.

????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ???????, ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??????. ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??, ????, ?????, ??????? ???????? ?????, ?????? ????.

????? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

"????? ???" ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????, ??? ? ?????? ??????, ???? ? ????? ??????? ???? ? ?????? ?????? , ?????? ?????. ???? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????. ????? ??????, ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???. ??-?? ???, ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????, ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????????. ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????, ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????. ??????, ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? , ??? ? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????, ???????? ?? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?? "????? ?????". ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? - ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????. ????? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???? .

????? ???? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ???? ? ????? ??? ??-?????? ?? ????? ???. ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? (??????, ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????) ??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????. ????, ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ? ??????? ?????, ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???

????? ??????

???? ???? 2019 ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????. ?? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????.

???????

?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????. ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ???. ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????????.

????? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ?????? ??? ???? ? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???????. ?????, ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ? ??? , ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????, ????? ????????? . ????????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????, ?? ???? ??????? ? ????? ??? . ?????? ????? ?????? ? ????? ???????? ??????, ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? .

???? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????, ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????, ???? ?- 13 ???????? 1846 , ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???'???? , ???? ?? ???? "???? ????".

? ??? ?-21 ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????. ????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????, ???? ??? ???????? . ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?????.

?????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

• ?? ??????, ???? ???, ????? ??????? ???????? , ?????, 2008

??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??? ????????
??? ?????? ???????????: ????????????
??? ?????? ???????????: ????? ????
?????? ????? ???????????: ????? ??????

• ????? ?????? , ???? ??????????? ???????? (???????)
• ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????
• ????? ?????? , ???? ?? ????
• ????? ?????? (?????, ??????? ???????), ???? ??? ?? ?????
• ????? ?????? , ?? ??? ? ?????? ???????

????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]