한국   대만   중국   일본 
??? ???? ?? ????????? ???????????? ?? ????? ? ???????? ???? ?????

??? ???? ?? ????????? ???????????? ?? ?????

???? ????????, ???????????? ???????

??? ???? ?? ????????? ???????????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????? ? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????. ????? ???? ?? ???????? ????????????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ( ??' ) , ????? ??????? .

? ???????? ????? ????? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????????. ??????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? , ? ?????? , ??? ????? ? ?????????? , ??? ? ???????? ??????, ???? DNA ? ??????? .

????? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???????

?????? ??? ?? ??????????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????, ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? . ???? ?-99 ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? (????? ?????? ???????) ??????? ????? ?????? . [1] ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??? 10 ?????? ?-14 ??????, ????? ????? ?? 14%, ?-1.2 ?????? ?????, ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ( ??' ) . [2] ?? ???, ??"? ???? 2016 ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????, ????? ????? ?? 0.001% ( ?????? ???).

????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????, ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????, ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????, ?? ???????? ???????, ??? ?????? ????????? , ??? ????? ??????? ???????, ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????. [3] [4]

???? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ???? ?????

????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?? ? ???? ??????? ?? ? ????????? ????. ???? ?-4 ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ??? ? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??. ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????. ???? ?????? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? . [5] ????? ????-???? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? , ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????. [6]

???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??????? ? ???????? , ???????? ?? ???????
???????? ??????????? ??? ????? ? ????? ? ???? ? ????????? ?? ?????????? ????? ?????. ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????????? (???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ) ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? , ???? ? ??????? ?????? ????? ???-????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ? ??-????? ???????, ? ???? , ?????? ? ???? ???? , ????? ? ??? .

?????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???, ??? ??????? ??????? ?????, ????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????, ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????. ?? ???, ? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????????, ????? ?????? , [7] ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????.

?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ? ???????? ?? ???? ???? : [8]

?????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????, ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????. ?????? ?????? ? ????? ?? ?????? , ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?-21 ???????. [9]

?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? , ??????? ? ????? ??????????? ??????, ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ( ??' ) , ??????? ????????? ??????? ( ??' ) , ??????? ? ???? ??? ??? ? ?????? ??????? . [10]

??? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????, ??? ???? ?????? ????. ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??"? (?????? ??? ???? ?????). ??????: 4,540 ?????? 4,540 ?????? ??? ?? 4.54 ??????? ???.

???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ????
??? ????? ?????????? \ ???????\ ????? ?????? ????
4,540
???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ???????
????? ???-??????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???
???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ??????. ? ????? ????-??????? , ??????? ??? ????? , ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????. [11]
4,510
????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????????. ??? ??????, ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????????? ????.
?? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? , ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????, ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????. [12] ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ( ??' ) ??????? ?? ???? ????, ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????? .
4,400 ???? ???????? ???????? ( ??' ) ?? ??? ???? ????.
4,280 - 3,770 ????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ( ??' ) ?? ??? ???? ????. [13] [14] [15]

???? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ????????
??? ????? ??????????\ ???????\ ????? ?????? ????
4,100?3,800 ?????? ????? ??????? , ??? ?? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????.
?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? "?????? ????? ???????" (???) ????? (????).
??? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ????. ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? 4.1 ??????? ??? ? ???? ???????? . [16]
4031-3580 ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?????.
??? ?? Acasta Gneiss ( ??' ) , ????? ?????? ????? ?????. ???? ??? ????????? ???? 3.58 ?? 4.031 ??????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????.
3,900?2,500 ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ? ?????????? . [17] ??? ?????, ??????????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ?????????? , ??????? ? ???? ??-????? ????? ? ???? , ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??????.
3,800 ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? , ????? ? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ????. ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????: ????? ?????? [18] ?? 3.8 ??????? ??? ?????; [19] ????? ?????? ??? 3.7 ??????? ???? ????? ???????; ? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ??? ?? 3.48 ??????? ??? ? ???? ???????? . [20]
3500 ?? ????? ????? ????????? ????? (LUCA): [21] [22] ????? ??? ??????? ? ???????? . [23] ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????, ??????? ?? ????? ???? . ?????????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? (ATP), [24] ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??????????? ?????. [25]
3,000 ?????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????. [26] ????? ????? ?????????? ???? ???, ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ? ???? ????? . ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ???-????????? ?? ??? ???? ????, ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??????????.
2,800 ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ?????, ????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????, ??????? ???? ? ??? , ???? ?????? ?????-??????? ( ??' ) . [27]

???? ????????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ?????????????
??? ????? ??????????
2,400
????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?????????? (????- ????????, ????-????????) ????? ?????. ??? 1 : ???? 3.85-2.45 ??????? ????. ??? 2 : ???? 2.45-1.85 ??????? ????. ??? 3 : ???? 1.85-0.85 ??????? ????. ??? 4 : ???? 0.85-0.54 ??????? ???? . ??? 5 : ???? 0.54 ??????? ???? ??? ?????. ??? ?-Y ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ????????? . ????, ?? ???? 0.3 ?"?, ???? ?????????? 30% ????. ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? 21%

????? ?????? - ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??????????????? ??-????????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ? ???????? . ????? ? ???? ? ????????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???????. ?? ???? ?????? ??????? (???????????) . ????? ????????????? ???? ???? ??????????. ????? ? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ???? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ????? (FeO). ???? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????????. ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??-?????????. ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? Preston Cloud ????? ?-1970.

???? ??-????? (O2) ??? ??-????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ???. ???????? ? ??-????????? ???????? (???????????) ??? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???????, ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?????. ??????? ??????? ??-????????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????, ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???-????????? ???????? ?? ?????.

???? ????? ?????????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? - ?????? ???????????? . ???????????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?????. ?????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?? ???????, ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????????? .

?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? .

?? 1,850
????? ?? ????? ? ????? ???-?????? ?????????? ????????
???? ??????????? , ??????? ??????? ??????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????, ?????? ????? ? ?????????? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ??????? ????????? . ??????? ???????? ( ??????????? ) ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ???????????. [28] ?????? ????? ????, ?????? ??????? ????? ? ????????? . [29]
1,300 ? ?????? ??????? ?????. [30]
?? 1,200 ????? ?????? ????? ( ????? ) ?????????? ??-?????, ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ?????????? ?? ?" ???? ?-RNA ". ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????????. [31]
?? 1,000 ????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????. ?? ??? ??????????? ???-?????, ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???????????.
750 ????????? ?????? (??????: Melanocyrillium, Blepharisma japonicum ), ????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? . [32] [33]
Blepharisma japonicum ( ??' ) , ????????? ?????? , ????? ?? ??-????? ?????????? , ?????????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????.
720 – 630
???? ???? ????? ???
???? ???? ????? ??? , ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????????, [34] [35] ?????? ?? ???? ? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???-????? . [36] [37] ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????????. [38] [39] [40]
600 ??????? ?? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? . [41] [27]
580 – 542
?????????? , ??? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????????? , ???? 567 ?? 550 ?????? ???.
??????????? ???-????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????

(Ediacaran biota ( ??' ) ). [42]

?????????? , ????? ??????? ?????? ???????.

580 – 500 ?????? ????????? : ??? ? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ???????. [43] [44]
550 – 540 ??????? , [45] ??????? , [46] ??????? ??????? ?? , [47] Ikaria wariootia ( ??????? ?????). [48]
Dinoflagellate Ceratium furca ( ??' ) , ??? ?? ??????????? ( ??' ) ?????.

????-?? ??????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ???????????

???? ???????????? (???????: "????? ?? ???? ?????? ????") ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?????. ??? ????? ?????? ??????, ??????????? , ?????????? ? ?????????? , ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????.

???? ??????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ???????????
??? ????? ??????????
535
?????????? , ?????? ???????? ?????. [49]
?????? ????????? ; ????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ???? , ?????? ??????? ????? ???????????: ????? ?????? (???? ?????????? ? ??????? ), ???????? , ?????? , ?????????? , ???????? , ?????????? .
530 ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?????. [50]
520 ? ?????????? ( ??' ) ???????? ?????. [51]
511 ? ??????? ??????? ?????. [52]
508
??????? (???? ???'?) ? ???? ?????? ???? , ????
??????? ?? ???? ???'? , ???? ?????? ??????? ????? 508 ?????? ????, ??????? ????? ???? ????. [53]
500 ?????? ???????.
485 ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? (???? ???? ????? ).
450 ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? .
440 ????? ???? ???? ????? ???????: ???????? ( ??' ) , ?????????? ( ??' ) ? ??????????? ( ??' ) .
420 ?????? ????? ???????, ??????? ??????? ???????. [54]
410 ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????. ? ????????? ?????? ?????; ????????? ( ???? ?????? ); ? ?????? , ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ? ??????????? .
488 – 400
??????????? , ??-????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????, ????? ????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????, ??? ? ??????? ??????, ?? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ????????. [55]
???????? , ??????????? ? ??-???????? ???????. [56] [57]
395 ?????? ???????, ?????????? , ? ?????? ???????? ?????, ?????, ???????? ( ???????? ) ? ??-????? , ???????????? . [58]
375 ???????? , ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ( ???? ???? ?????? ) ???????. ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????????. [59]
365 ????????? ??? ??? ??????????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????, ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????. [60]
363 ?????? ????? ????? , ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????. ?????? ???????. [61]
360 ?????? ?????? ???????. [62]
????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?-360 ?????? ??? ????? ??? ? ???? . [63]
350 ?????? ??????, ??? ?????? ????? ???? , ??????? ???????? , ???????? ( ???? ???? ?????? ).
350 ????? ?? ??-???? . [64]
325-335 ????? ?????? ???????. [65]
330-320 ???? ?????? ?? ???? ( Paleothyris ) ???????. [66]
320 ????????? (???? ? ?????? ) ?????? ? ??????????? (??????) ???? ???? ? ????? .
305 ????? ??? ???? ???????? ( ??' ) ??????, ?????? ?????? ????? ???. ?????? ?????????? ??????? (???? ????????????? ).
280 ? ???????? ??????? ?????, ???? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ? ????????????? ( ??' ) ?? ?????????? ( ??' ) ????. ????? ????? ?????? ? ??-???? ? ??????????? (???? ????????? ).
275 ???????? ?????? ? ????????? ??????????? .
265 ???????????? , ????? ?????? ?????? ? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????. [67]
251.9 – 251.4 ????? ???-????? ; ??? 90-95% ??????? ?????? ??????. ?????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ? ????? ?????. [68]

???? ?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ??????, ????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??????? ? ????? , ???? (????????) , ???????
??? ????? ??????????
250 ?????? ????? ?? ???? ? ?????????? ??????: ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????, ????? ???? ?????
??????????? ( ??' ) ,??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???????????????? ( ??' ) ?????? ?????.
?????? ?????? ????? ??????; "???? ??????" ??????????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????.
250
????? ?? ??????????'??
??????????'?? , ??? ??-?? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ? ??????? ?? ?????? , ????? ??????? ????? ???????. ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ????????. ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?- 1930 . [69]
248 ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ? ????? ?????? .
245 ????? ?????? ????? ???????????? .
240 ????'??????? ??????? ???????????? ? ???? ?????? ????????? .
225 ??????????? ???????? ????? ( ????????????? ), ????? ???????, ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? , ????????? ( ??' ) ???? ???. ??? ????-?????? ???????. ?????? ??????? (?????????? ( ??' ) ).
220
??????????? , ??? ?? ???????? ???? ???????? .
?????? ????? ??????? (Odontochelys ( ??' ) ). ?????????? ??????? ? ??-????? ??????????? . ?????? ??????? ???????????? , ????? ????? ???? ????, ????? ????? ? ????????? . ????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ????; ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????.
205 ????? ????? . ????? ??????????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? , ????? ???? ????? ????, ???? ???????????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????.
200 ???? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ???? ????????? (????? Geminiviridae ( ??' ) ).

?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????-???? ??????. ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????????? ???-???? ????????? .

195 ?????????? ???????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????? . ?????????? ??????? ????? ????????? . ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????: ???????????????? , ???? ??? ???? ??? ? ???????????? .
190 ?????? ??????? ??????? ? ?????????????? . ?????? ? ??????? , ????? ???? , ????? ?? ????????, ?????? ?? , ??????? .
176 ?????? ?????????? ? ?????? ????? ?????????? .
170 ???? ??? ???????, ???????? , ???????????? , ????????????? , ??????????? ??????? ????????? ( ??' ) . ?????????? ???????-???? ????????? .
165 ?????? ????? ? ?????? ????? . [70]
163 ?????? ???????????? ??-???? ????? ?? ?????????? . [71]
161 ?????????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ( ??????? ) ?????? ????? ????? ?????: ??????? .
160 ?????????????? , ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ? ???? , ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? .
155 ????? ????? ?? ???????, ?????????????? ( ??' ) , ????? ????? ???????? . ??????????? , ?? ????? ????? ????????, ????? ?????? ????????, ??? ?? ?????? ?????????????? ( ??' ) ???????????? ( ??' ) . ????? ??????????? ? ?????? ????? ?????????? ? ??????? .
131 ???? ???? ???? .
140 ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? .
135 ????? ???? ????? . ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ; ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ???. ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ????. ??? ??? ?????? ?????. ? ??????? ??????? ?????.
120 ?????? ??????? ??????? ? ??????????? ???? ??????? .
115 ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? .
114 ?????? ? ?????? . [72]
112 ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????, ?????????? .
110 ?????? ????????????? , ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???-????????? ????? ???? ?????? , ??? ??? ????? ??? ? ??????? ???? 66?100 ?????? ???. ???????????? ( ??' ) ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ?????.
100 ?????? ? ?????? . [73]
100–95 ??????????? , ??? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ???-????? ??????? . [74]
95 ?????? ? ??????? , ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????, ??????????. [75]
90 ????? ?? ???????????? . ?????? ??????? ?????. ????? ???? ????? ?????: ??-??????? , ??????? ( ??' ) , ???????? ( ??' ) , ? ?????? . ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? . ?????? ??????? ? ????? ????? .
86–76 ????? ???????? ?????? ???????. [76] [77]
70 ?????? ? ??????? .
68–66 ??????????? , ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????, ????? ?????? ????????. ???? ?????? ?? ????????? . [78]
??? ????? ??????????
66 ????? ???????-?????? ; ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????, ???? ??????????? , ?????????? , ??????????? , ???????? , ???????? , ???????? .
66 ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? (???? ???? ????), ??? ?? ? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????????. ? ??????? ???????? ?????. ????? ????? ?????? ??????.
63 ?????? ? ?????????? , ???? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ?? ????? ? ???????? .
62 ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ? ??????????? .
59 ????? , ??? ??, ?????? ?????????, ????? ???????.
56 ???????? , ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????.
55 ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ( ?????? ??? ???????, ????? , ???????? , ?????? , ????? ), ????????? ?????? ???????, ? ??????? ??????? ?????, ?????? , ??? ?????? ?? ? ???????? , ???? ???? ????? ???????.
52 ?????? ??????? ???????.
????? Icaronycteris ( ??' ) ????? ???? 52.2 ?????? ????.
50
????????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ? ????? ? ???????????? , ??? ???? ???? ? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? , ???????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? .
??? ?????? ?? ??????????? ( ??' ) ? ??????????????? , ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????, ????? ?? ??????? .
40
???????????
?????? ? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????. ????? ?? ???????? , ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ?????????? .

??????????? , ??? ??????????? ??????? ????????, ????? ??????? ?????? ????????.

38 ? ?????? ????????.
37 ?????? ??????? ????? ??????????? . ????????? ? ???? ???? ???????.
35 ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????, ???? ??? ??????? ??????. ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ???, ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? , ??????, ??-???? ??????? ???? ?????????????? . ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????: ???????????? ???????, ????? ???? , ?????? , ??????? . ?????? ?? ????? ????????. ????? ? ???????? ?????? ? ???????? ?????? .
33 ??????? ???? ??? ? ???? ??? ( Badjcinus ).
30 ? ????????? (?????-??) ?? ?????????? ????????, ????? ?? ?????? ????????????? , ?????? ??????? ????????.
28 ????????? , ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????????. ?????? ???????.
25 ?????????? ?????? ( ??' ) , ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???, ?????? ??????? ?????? ????????.
25 ?????? ? ??????? .
24 ?????? ? ?????? ??????.
23 ? ????? ??????? ?????, ???? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? . [79]
20 ?????? ?'????? , ?????? ? ???? ????? ?????? , ????? ?????? ????????.
17 ??????? ??????? ????? ???? .
15 ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????, ????? ? ?????? ???????, ????? ? ???-????? ? ???????? .
10 ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????, ????? ??????, ????? ????? ????????, ????? ????? ????? ????.
9.5 ?????? ????????? ?????? , ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????. ???????? , ????????? , ????? ??? ???????????? , ????? ???? , ???????????? ? ?????????????? ???? ????? ??????, ???? ?????, ?????? ( ??' ) , ??????? , ??????? , ?????, ?????? ( ??' ) , ??????, ??????, ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????.
9 ?????? ? ???????? .
6.5 ??????????? ?'?????? , ?? ????? ????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ???????.
6 ????? ?????? ????????????? ????: ?????????? ? ??????? ???????? ???????.
5 ????? ???? ??????? ???????????, ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? , ???????, ??????, ??????? ??????? ?????, ?????? ????? ?????? ?????, ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? . ????? ?? ?????? ??????????? . ??? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???????.
4.8 ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????.
4.5 ???????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???????.
4 ????????????? ?????. ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?????, ?????? ????????? ????????, ?'?????, ?????, ?????, ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????.
3.6 ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???????.
3 ??-??? ???????.
2.7 ?????????? , ??? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? , ????? ???????????.
2.5
?????? ?????? (????????)
????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????.
2 ???? ???? ???? (???) ????????, ?????? ???? ?????? , ??????? ?????? ????????. ??? ?????? ?? ? ??? , ??? ??? , ????? ?????.
1.7 ???????????'????? ( ??' ) ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? , ????.
1.2 ?????????? , ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? , ????.
1 ???? ????? ???????.
???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? (?????: 800?800,000 ????0.8 ?????? ???)
800 ????? ????-???? ( Arctodus simus ) ?????? ????? ??????.
600
????? ???? ?? ???? ????????????
???????? ?? ???? ???????????? .
400 ?????? ???? ????? .
350 ???????? ?? ???? ?????????? , ????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????, ?????? ????? ? ?????? , ? ???? ?????? (????? ?? ? ??? ????? ), ? ???? ???? ?? ????? , ????? ?????? ???????? ????-???????? ?? ? ???????? ?????? ???????.
300 ???????????? , ??? ?? ??? ??? , ??? ? ????-???? ???? , ????.
250 ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ??? ????? ???????. [80]
177 ??? ?????? , ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ???????. [81]
40 ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? (Varanus priscus) ??????.
35-25 ???? ?????????? ????, ???? ??? ???? .
15 ???? ?????? (Coelodonta antiquitatis) ????. [82]
11 ????????? (????? ???? ????) ?????? ????? ??????, ? ??????? ???????? ??????. ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????.
10 ???? ? ?????? ?????. ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? (Mammuthus primigenus) ??????, ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? (?????? ??????) . [83]
13 ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????

??? ?? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

  1. ^ Stearns, Beverly Peterson; Stearns, S. C.; Stearns, Stephen C. (2000). Watching, from the Edge of Extinction . Yale University Press . p. preface x. ISBN   978-0-300-08469-6 . ???? ?- 30 ???? 2017 . {{ cite book }} : ( ???? )
  2. ^ Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; et al. ( 23 ??????? 2011 ). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?" . PLOS Biology . 9 (8): e1001127. doi : 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 . ISSN   1545-7885 . PMC   3160336 . PMID   21886479 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  3. ^ Hickman, Crystal; Starn, Autumn. "The Burgess Shale & Models of Evolution" . Reconstructions of the Burgess Shale and What They Mean.. . Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University . ???? ?- 2015-10-18 .
  4. ^ Barton et al. 2007 , Figure 10.20 Four diagrams of evolutionary models
  5. ^ ???? ???????, ???????? ? ???? ????? , ????? " ???? ???? " ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? , 6 ??????? 2013
  6. ^ ??????? ???????? ????? , ???? ???? ????? ???? , ‏2020-09-09
  7. ^ "Measuring the sixth mass extinction - Cosmos" . cosmosmagazine.com .
  8. ^ "The big five mass extinctions - Cosmos" . cosmosmagazine.com . 5 ????? 2015 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  9. ^ Myers, Norman; Knoll, Andrew H. ( 8 ???? 2001 ). "The biotic crisis and the future of evolution" . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (1): 5389?5392. Bibcode : 2001PNAS...98.5389M . doi : 10.1073/pnas.091092498 . ISSN   0027-8424 . PMC   33223 . PMID   11344283 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  10. ^ "History of life on Earth" . ????? ?- ????? ?-2016-08-16 . ???? ?- 2016-08-09 .
  11. ^ Moskowitz, Clara ( 29 ???? 2012 ). "Life's Building Blocks May Have Formed in Dust Around Young Sun" . Space.com . Salt Lake City, UT: Purch . ???? ?- 2012-03-30 . {{ cite news }} : ( ???? )
  12. ^ Herres, Gregg; Hartmann, William K (2010-09-07). "The Origin of the Moon" . Planetary Science Institute . Tucson, AZ . ???? ?- 2015-03-04 .
  13. ^ Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; Slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. ( 2 ???? 2017 ). "Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates" (PDF) . Nature . 543 (7643): 60?64. Bibcode : 2017Natur.543...60D . doi : 10.1038/nature21377 . PMID   28252057 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  14. ^ Zimmer, Carl ( 1 ???? 2017 ). "Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest" . The New York Times . ????? ?- ????? ?-2022-01-01 . ???? ?- 2 ???? 2017 . {{ cite news }} : ( ???? )
  15. ^ Ghosh, Pallab ( 1 ???? 2017 ). "Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found' " . BBC News . ???? ?- 2 ???? 2017 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  16. ^ Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. ( 24 ??????? 2015 ). "Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon" (PDF) . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A . 112 (47): 14518?14521. Bibcode : 2015PNAS..11214518B . doi : 10.1073/pnas.1517557112 . ISSN   0027-8424 . PMC   4664351 . PMID   26483481 . ???? ?- 2015-12-30 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  17. ^ Woese, Carl; Gogarten, J. Peter ( 21 ???????? 1999 ). "When did eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei and other internal organelles) first evolve? What do we know about how they evolved from earlier life-forms?" . Scientific American . ISSN   0036-8733 . ???? ?- 2015-03-04 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  18. ^ ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????.
  19. ^ Nicole Mortilanno. "Oldest traces of life on Earth found in Quebec, dating back roughly 3.8 billion years" . CBC News .
  20. ^ Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M. ( 8 ??????? 2013 ). "Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia" . Astrobiology . 13 (12): 1103?1124. Bibcode : 2013AsBio..13.1103N . doi : 10.1089/ast.2013.1030 . ISSN   1531-1074 . PMC   3870916 . PMID   24205812 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  21. ^ Doolittle, W. Ford ( ??????? 2000 ). "Uprooting the Tree of Life" (PDF) . Scientific American . 282 (2): 90?95. Bibcode : 2000SciAm.282b..90D . doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican0200-90 . ISSN   0036-8733 . PMID   10710791 . ????? ?- ????? (PDF) ?-2006-09-07 . ???? ?- 2015-04-05 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  22. ^ Glansdorff, Nicolas; Ying Xu; Labedan, Bernard ( 9 ????? 2008 ). "The Last Universal Common Ancestor: emergence, constitution and genetic legacy of an elusive forerunner" . Biology Direct . 3 : 29. doi : 10.1186/1745-6150-3-29 . ISSN   1745-6150 . PMC   2478661 . PMID   18613974 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  23. ^ Hahn, Jurgen; Haug, Pat ( ???? 1986 ). "Traces of Archaebacteria in ancient sediments". Systematic and Applied Microbiology . 7 (2?3): 178?183. doi : 10.1016/S0723-2020(86)80002-9 . ISSN   0723-2020 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  24. ^ ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???.
  25. ^ "Proton Gradient, Cell Origin, ATP Synthase - Learn Science at Scitable" . www.nature.com .
  26. ^ Buick, Roger ( 27 ??????? 2008 ). "When did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve?" . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B . 363 (1504): 2731?2743. doi : 10.1098/rstb.2008.0041 . ISSN   0962-8436 . PMC   2606769 . PMID   18468984 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  27. ^ 1 2 Beraldi-Campesi, Hugo ( 23 ??????? 2013 ). "Early life on land and the first terrestrial ecosystems" (PDF) . Ecological Processes . 2 (1): 4. doi : 10.1186/2192-1709-2-1 . ISSN   2192-1709 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  28. ^ Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol ( ???? 1989 ). "Bacteriophage T4 genetic homologies with bacteria and eucaryotes" . Journal of Bacteriology . 171 (5): 2265?2270. doi : 10.1128/jb.171.5.2265-2270.1989 . ISSN   0021-9193 . PMC   209897 . PMID   2651395 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  29. ^ Knoll, Andrew H.; Javaux, Emmanuelle J.; Hewitt, David; et al. ( 29 ????? 2006 ). "Eukaryotic organisms in Proterozoic oceans" . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B . 361 (1470): 1023?1038. doi : 10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 . ISSN   0962-8436 . PMC   1578724 . PMID   16754612 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  30. ^ "First Land Plants and Fungi Changed Earth's Climate, Paving the Way for Explosive Evolution of Land Animals, New Gene Study Suggests" . science.psu.edu . ????? ?- ????? ?-2018-04-08 . ???? ?- 10 ?????? 2018 . The researchers found that land plants had evolved on Earth by about 700 million years ago and land fungi by about 1,300 million years ago ? much earlier than previous estimates of around 480 million years ago, which were based on the earliest fossils of those organisms. {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  31. ^ Butterfield, Nicholas J. (Summer 2000). " Bangiomorpha pubescens n. gen., n. sp.: implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes" . Paleobiology . 26 (3): 386?404. doi : 10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN   0094-8373 .
  32. ^ Zimmer, Carl ( 27 ??????? 2019 ). "Is This the First Fossil of an Embryo? - Mysterious 609-million-year-old balls of cells may be the oldest animal embryos ? or something else entirely" . The New York Times . ????? ?- ????? ?-2022-01-01 . ???? ?- 28 ??????? 2019 . {{ cite news }} : ( ???? )
  33. ^ Cunningham, John A.; et al. ( 5 ?????? 2016 ). "The origin of animals: Can molecular clocks and the fossil record be reconciled?" . BioEssays . 39 (1): e201600120. doi : 10.1002/bies.201600120 . PMID   27918074 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  34. ^ Hoffman, Paul F.; Kaufman, Alan J.; Halverson, Galen P.; Schrag, Daniel P. ( 28 ??????? 1998 ). "A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth" (PDF) . Science . 281 (5381): 1342?1346. Bibcode : 1998Sci...281.1342H . doi : 10.1126/science.281.5381.1342 . ISSN   0036-8075 . PMID   9721097 . ???? ?- 2007-05-04 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  35. ^ Kirschvink 1992 , pp. 51?52
  36. ^ "First Land Plants and Fungi Changed Earth's Climate, Paving the Way for Explosive Evolution of Land Animals, New Gene Study Suggests" . www.sciencedaily.com . ???? ?- 25 ???? 2022 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  37. ^ ?arsky, J.; ?arsky, V.; Hana?ek, M.; ?arsky, V. (2022-01-27). "Cryogenian Glacial Habitats as a Plant Terrestrialisation Cradle ? The Origin of the Anydrophytes and Zygnematophyceae Split" . Frontiers in Plant Science . Frontiers . 12 : 735020. doi : 10.3389/fpls.2021.735020 . ISSN   1664-462X . PMC   8829067 . PMID   35154170 .
  38. ^ Boyle, Richard A.; Lenton, Timothy M. ; Williams, Hywel T. P. ( ?????? 2007 ). "Neoproterozoic 'snowball Earth' glaciations and the evolution of altruism" (PDF) . Geobiology . 5 (4): 337?349. doi : 10.1111/j.1472-4669.2007.00115.x . ISSN   1472-4677 . ????? ?- ????? (PDF) ?-2008-09-10 . ???? ?- 2015-03-09 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  39. ^ Corsetti, Frank A.; Awramik, Stanley M. ; Pierce, David ( 15 ?????? 2003 ). "A complex microbiota from snowball Earth times: Microfossils from the Neoproterozoic Kingston Peak Formation, Death Valley, USA" . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A . 100 (8): 4399?4404. Bibcode : 2003PNAS..100.4399C . doi : 10.1073/pnas.0730560100 . ISSN   0027-8424 . PMC   153566 . PMID   12682298 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  40. ^ Corsetti, Frank A.; Olcott, Alison N.; Bakermans, Corien ( 22 ???? 2006 ). "The biotic response to Neoproterozoic snowball Earth". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology . 232 (2?4): 114?130. Bibcode : 2006PPP...232..114C . doi : 10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.10.030 . ISSN   0031-0182 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  41. ^ "Formation of the Ozone Layer" . Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center . NASA. 9 ??????? 2009 . ???? ?- 2013-05-26 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  42. ^ Narbonne, Guy ( ?????? 2008 ). "The Origin and Early Evolution of Animals" . Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Queen's University . ????? ?- ????? ?-2015-07-24 . ???? ?- 2007-03-10 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  43. ^ Waggoner, Ben M.; Collins, Allen G.; et al. ( 22 ??????? 1994 ). Rieboldt, Sarah; Smith, Dave (eds.). "The Cambrian Period" . Tour of geologic time (Online exhibit). Berkeley, CA: University of California Museum of Paleontology . ???? ?- 2015-03-09 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  44. ^ Lane, Abby ( 20 ?????? 1999 ). "Timing" . The Cambrian Explosion . Bristol, England: University of Bristol . ???? ?- 2015-03-09 . {{ cite web }} : ( ???? )
  45. ^ Chen, Jun-Yuan; Schopf, J. William; Bottjer, David J.; Zhang, Chen-Yu; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Tripathi, Abhishek B.; Wang, Xiu-Qiang; Yang, Yong-Hua; Gao, Xiang; Yang, Ying (2007-04-10). "Raman spectra of a Lower Cambrian ctenophore embryo from southwestern Shaanxi, China" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 104 (15): 6289?6292. Bibcode : 2007PNAS..104.6289C . doi : 10.1073/pnas.0701246104 . ISSN   0027-8424 . PMC   1847456 . PMID   17404242 .
  46. ^ Muller, W. E. G.; Jinhe Li; Schroder, H. C.; Li Qiao; Xiaohong Wang (2007-05-03). "The unique skeleton of siliceous sponges (Porifera; Hexactinellida and Demospongiae) that evolved first from the Urmetazoa during the Proterozoic: a review" . Biogeosciences (???????). 4 (2): 219?232. Bibcode : 2007BGeo....4..219M . doi : 10.5194/bg-4-219-2007 . ISSN   1726-4170 .
  47. ^ "Corals and sea anemones (anthozoa)" . Smithsonian's National Zoo (???????). 2018-12-11 . ???? ?- 2022-09-24 .
  48. ^ Grazhdankin, Dima ( 8 ??????? 2016 ). "Patterns of distribution in the Ediacaran biotas: facies versus biogeography and evolution" . Paleobiology (???????). 30 (2): 203?221. doi : 10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0203:PODITE>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN   0094-8373 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  49. ^ "Palaeos Paleozoic: Cambrian: The Cambrian Period - 2" . ????? ?- ????? ?-2009-04-29 . ???? ?- 2009-04-20 .
  50. ^ Clarke, Tom ( 30 ?????? 2002 ). "Oldest fossil footprints on land" . Nature . doi : 10.1038/news020429-2 . ISSN   1744-7933 . ???? ?- 2015-03-09 . The oldest fossils of footprints ever found on land hint that animals may have beaten plants out of the primordial seas. Lobster-sized, centipede-like animals made the prints wading out of the ocean and scuttling over sand dunes about 530 million years ago. Previous fossils indicated that animals didn't take this step until 40 million years later. {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  51. ^ "Graptolites" . British Geological Survey (??????? ??????) . ???? ?- 2022-09-24 .
  52. ^ Leutwyler, Kristin. "511-Million-Year-Old Fossil Suggests Pre-Cambrian Origins for Crustaceans" . Scientific American (???????) . ???? ?- 2022-09-24 .
  53. ^ ???? ???????: ???? ???'? ???? ????????? (? ?????? : Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History ), ??? ? ?????????? ????? ?'?? ???? ???? ?????????? ??????? .
  54. ^ Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. ( ??????? 2011 ). "Early Terrestrial Animals, Evolution, and Uncertainty" . Evolution: Education and Outreach . 4 (3): 489?501. doi : 10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y . ISSN   1936-6426 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  55. ^ Lindgren, A.R.; Giribet, G.; Nishiguchi, M.K. (2004). "A combined approach to the phylogeny of Cephalopoda (Mollusca)" (PDF) . Cladistics . 20 (5): 454?486. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.693.2026 . doi : 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00032.x . PMID   34892953 . ????? ?- ????? (PDF) ?-2015-02-10 .
  56. ^ Landing, Ed; Westrop, Stephen R. ( 1 ??????? 2006 ). "Lower Ordovician Faunas, Stratigraphy, and Sea-Level History of the Middle Beekmantown Group, Northeastern New York" . Journal of Paleontology . 80 (5): 958?980. doi : 10.1666/0022-3360(2006)80[958:LOFSAS]2.0.CO;2 . ISSN   0022-3360 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  57. ^ Serb, Jeanne M.; Eernisse, Douglas J. ( 25 ??????? 2008 ). "Charting Evolution's Trajectory: Using Molluscan Eye Diversity to Understand Parallel and Convergent Evolution" . Evolution: Education and Outreach (???????). 1 (4): 439?447. doi : 10.1007/s12052-008-0084-1 . ISSN   1936-6434 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  58. ^ Nied?wiedzki, Grzegorz; Szrek, Piotr; Narkiewicz, Katarzyna; Narkiewicz, Marek; Ahlberg, Per E. ( 1 ?????? 2010 ). "Tetrapod trackways from the early Middle Devonian period of Poland" (PDF) . Nature (???????). 463 (7277): 43?48. Bibcode : 2010Natur.463...43N . doi : 10.1038/nature08623 . ISSN   1476-4687 . PMID   20054388 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  59. ^ "Details of Evolutionary Transition from Fish to Land Animals Revealed" . www.nsf.gov (???????) . ???? ?- 2022-09-25 .
  60. ^ Clack, Jennifer A. ( 21 ??????? 2005 ). "Getting a Leg Up on Land" . Scientific American . 293 (6): 100?107. Bibcode : 2005SciAm.293f.100C . doi : 10.1038/scientificamerican1205-100 . PMID   16323697 . ????? ?- ????? ?-2007-02-25 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  61. ^ Martin, R. Aidan. "Evolution of a Super Predator" . Biology of Sharks and Rays . North Vancouver, BC, Canada: ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research . ???? ?- 2015-03-10 . The ancestry of sharks dates back more than 200 million years before the earliest known dinosaur.
  62. ^ "Devonian Fossil Forest Unearthed in China | Paleontology | Sci-News.com" . Breaking Science News | Sci-News.com (??????? ????????) . ???? ?- 2019-09-28 .
  63. ^ "Pteridopsida: Fossil Record" . University of California Museum of Paleontology . ???? ?- 2014-03-11 .
  64. ^ "Amphibia" . paleobiodb.org . ???? ?- 2022-10-07 .
  65. ^ Benton, M.J.; Donoghue, P.C.J. (2006). "Palaeontological evidence to date the tree of life" . Molecular Biology and Evolution . 24 (1): 26?53. doi : 10.1093/molbev/msl150 . PMID   17047029 .
  66. ^ "Origin and Early Evolution of Amniotes | Frontiers Research Topic" . www.frontiersin.org . ???? ?- 2022-10-07 .
  67. ^ Kemp, T. S. ( 16 ??????? 2006 ). "The origin and early radiation of the therapsid mammal-like reptiles: a palaeobiological hypothesis" . Journal of Evolutionary Biology (???????). 19 (4): 1231?1247. doi : 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.01076.x . ISSN   1010-061X . PMID   16780524 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  68. ^ Sahney, Sarda; Benton, Michael J. ( 7 ?????? 2008 ). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B . 275 (1636): 759?765. doi : 10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 . ISSN   0962-8452 . PMC   2596898 . PMID   18198148 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  69. ^ Triadobatrachus | fossil amphibian genus | Britannica , www.britannica.com (???????)
  70. ^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What are the vampire squid and the vampire fish?" . oceanservice.noaa.gov (??????? ????????) . ???? ?- 2019-09-27 .
  71. ^ Dell'Amore, Christine ( 24 ?????? 2014 ). "Meet Kryptodrakon: Oldest Known Pterodactyl Found in China" . National Geographic News . Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society . ???? ?- 2014-04-25 . {{ cite news }} : ( ???? )
  72. ^ Greshko, Michael (2020-02-11). "Oldest evidence of modern bees found in Argentina" . National Geographic . ???? ?- 2022-06-22 . The model shows that modern bees started diversifying at a breakneck pace about 114 million years ago, right around the time that eudicots?the plant group that comprises 75 percent of flowering plants?started branching out. The results, which confirm some earlier genetic studies, strengthen the case that flowering plants and pollinating bees have coevolved from the very beginning.
  73. ^ Moreau, Corrie S.; Bell, Charles D.; Vila, Roger; Archibald, S. Bruce; Pierce, Naomi E. (2006-04-07). "Phylogeny of the Ants: Diversification in the Age of Angiosperms" . Science (???????). 312 (5770): 101?104. Bibcode : 2006Sci...312..101M . doi : 10.1126/science.1124891 . ISSN   0036-8075 . PMID   16601190 .
  74. ^ "Case for 'river monster' Spinosaurus strengthened by new fossil teeth" . Science (???????). 2020-09-23 . ???? ?- 2022-10-03 .
  75. ^ "Mindat.org" . www.mindat.org . ???? ?- 2022-10-03 .
  76. ^ Grossnickle, David M.; Newham, Elis (2016-06-15). "Therian mammals experience an ecomorphological radiation during the Late Cretaceous and selective extinction at the K?Pg boundary" . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . 283 (1832): 20160256. doi : 10.1098/rspb.2016.0256 . PMC   4920311 .
  77. ^ "Mammals began their takeover long before the death of the dinosaurs" . ScienceDaily (???????) . ???? ?- 2022-09-25 .
  78. ^ Finds, Study (2021-12-02). "T-rex fossil reveals dinosaur from 68 million years ago likely had a terrible toothache!" . Study Finds (??????? ????????) . ???? ?- 2022-09-24 .
  79. ^ "About > The Origins of Oaks" . www.oaksofchevithornebarton.com . ???? ?- 2019-09-28 .
  80. ^ Karmin M, Saag L, Vicente M, et al. ( ?????? 2015 ). "A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture" . Genome Research . 25 (4): 459?466. doi : 10.1101/gr.186684.114 . ISSN   1088-9051 . PMC   4381518 . PMID   25770088 . {{ cite journal }} : ( ???? )
  81. ^ ?"? ???? ????, ???? ?????? ?? ???? , ????? " ????? ??? " ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? , 25 ?????? 2018
  82. ^ ????? ?????! ?????‏, ?????? ????????? ??????? ?? ???????: ??? ???? ?????? ?????? , ???? ????? ‏, 3 ???? 2015
  83. ^ "International Stratigraphic Chart (v 2014/10)" (PDF) . Beijing, China: International Commission on Stratigraphy . ???? ?- 2015-03-11 .
????? ???? " https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=???_????_??_?????????_????????????_??_?????&oldid=38186480 "