????? , ???????? (? ?????? : Supermarket ) ??????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? . ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???.

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???? 1963 ???? ? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? " ????????? ". ??? ????? ?? ? ???? ?.?.?, ????? ?????, ??? ?????? ???? ???????. ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? , ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ^{[????? ?????] [1]} .

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?????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????, ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ??????, ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ??????, ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????, ??? ?? ??????? ?????. ???? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????. ???? ?? ??, ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????, ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ??????. (????? ??? ????, ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????, ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ? ???? )

??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????, ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? , ??? ???? ????? ? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ? ????? ?-95 ???? ?? ???, ????? ?????? ??????.

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?????? ????? ? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????, ?????? ?????. ?? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ????????, ?????? ?????? ??? ??????. ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ?? ????????? ?????: ????? ??? , ???? ??? ????, ???? ????? ????, ???? ???? ????, ???? ????? , ????? ? ????? ?????, ??? ? ???? ?????, ????? ???? , ?????? , ????? ?????? ? ??????? , ?????? ? ????? ???? , ?????? ?????? ? ??????? , ?????? ? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????.

?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????, ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????, ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? . ?? ???, ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? (Deli), ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????. ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???, ??????? ?????? ? ????? , ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????, ??????? ??????? ? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ? ???? ?????.

?????? ????? ???????? , ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? (Non-Food). ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??????. ???? ??? ?? ???? ?-30% ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????.

??????? ?????? ????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????, ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?????, ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????. ???? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????. ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????, ??? ????? ????? ??????.

???? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????????? (??? ???????). ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????, ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? "??? ????" ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ?????. ????? ??? ? ??? , ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??????, ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?????. ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????.

??????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????. ??? ???????? ?????? ?????, ????? (Carrefour), ??????? ??????? ? ???? , ???? ?-2,400 ??????? (???? ?-10,000 ?????? ?????). ??? ????? ???? ???? ???? 2011 639 ????-?????? ?-2,412 ??????? ?-12 ??????. ??? ???????? ?????? ? ????? , ?????? , ???? ?-230 ??????.

????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? (??? ???? ??????) ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????. ??? ??, ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??????, ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????.

???? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????, ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????. ??? ??, ???? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ^[2] .

??????? ?????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

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?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ?? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? , ??? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ? ??? ????? . ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ? ??? . ???? 1950 ??? ??? ??? ???-?? ?? ?????? ????? 17 ?????? ????? ????, ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???.

?- 1957 ???? ???? " ?????? " ?74% ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ?-26% ?? ?????? " ???? ????? " ^[3] , ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ^[4] . ?????? ???? ????? ?"?. ?????? ??????? ???????? , ???? " ???? ??????? " ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? "???? ?????" ????? ???? ????? ????????. ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????, ????? ?? ?????, ???? ???? ????? ????? ?- 1959 ^[5] .

???????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?- 28 ??????? 1958 ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? "??????" ? ???? ??-????? ? ?? ???? . ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? 1300 ?"?. ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??????. ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????, ?????? ?????????? ??"? ?? ???? 16.00. ??? ???? ????? ???????? , ?????? ???? ?????, ????? ????? ??????, ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?????, ???????? ?????? ????, ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ^{[6] [7] [8]} . ?-2500 ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? 20,000 ????? ^[9] .

????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???????. ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? 1958 ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ^[10] .

???? ????? ?????? ??????, ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???????. ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ^[11] .

???? 1960 ???? ????? "??? ??", ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ???????. ????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????: ??? ?????? ??? 480 ?"?. ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????: 2,100 ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????, ?????? ??????? ???? ?-20,000 ?"? ?????.

?? ??? 1963 ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????.

????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? "????????" ???? ???? 1962 ??-90 ?????? ?"? ????? ???????? ?????? ????: 60 ?????? ?"?; ?????? " ?????? ": 17 ??????; ??"? : 15 ?????? ^[12] .

? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?- 1963 ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? "??????". ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????.

??????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? 1979 ????? ???? ????? ? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????.

? ???? ?-80 ????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????, ?????? ?????? ??????? 24 ????, ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????, ??? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? , ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????.

? ???? ?-90 , ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????????, ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????. ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? , ??????? , ????? ???? ? ????? ???? , ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ??? ???????? "????-????" ??? ??? ??????????? "???".

???? 1999 ????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? - ??-??? ???? , ??????? ???????? ^[13] - ???? ??? ?? 140 ??????. ???? 2005 ????? ???? ? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????, ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ^[14] .

???? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?-21 ????? ???????. ???????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????. ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?????. ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????.

???? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????????. ???? ??????? ?????? ????, ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??????. ????? ???? ???, ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???, ??? ???' ?? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????. ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ??????.

????? ?????? ???? ?-21 [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? 2001 ????? ??? AM:PM , ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? 24 ????. ?????? ?????? ????, ???? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ????? , ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???, ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?????. ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? AM:PM ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ^[15] .

?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????, ??? ?????? ?? ???? ^[16] ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? 2002 ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????????, ??????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????, ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?-90 ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ? ???? ?-2010 , ???? ???? ????? ??????? green.

???? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?-21 ??? ??????? ? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????. ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????, ?????? ???? ????????, ?????? ???? 2006 , ????? ?? ????? ?????? - " ????? ???? ", " ????? ??? ", " ???? ??? ", " ??????? ", "?. ??? ???????? ????" ?" ??? ??? ????? ????? " - ????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????????.

?????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????, ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???????, ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????. ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ^[17] .

????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????, ???? ???? 2007 ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??????, ???? 2009 ????? ???? ?? , ???? 2011 ?????? ?? ??????? , ????? 2015 ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? - ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????.

??? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? 2011 ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????. ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ?????, ???? ?????? ?????, ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? 2005?2008 ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? 7% ????? ????? ???? ????? ?? 4% ? ?????? ??OECD . ?????? ?????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ????? ???? 2014 ^[18] .

???? ??? ????? ????? ???????: ??? ????? ? ?????? ??????? , ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????, ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ; ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ?? ?????????? ??????, ????? ????? ????? ; ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ? ????? , ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??????, ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? - ??? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ^[18] .

????? ?????? ????? ???? 2020, ????? 5 ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?????, ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????, ???? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ^[18] . ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????, ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????, ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ^[19] .

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???? 2015 ????? ??? ???????? , ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????, ????? ?????, ????? ? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ???? ^[20] , ????? ???? ????? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? .

???? ???? 2019 ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? (?????? ????? ????) ?? 272 ??????, ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? 59 ??????, ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? 185 ?????? ^[21] .

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• ??? ??????, ??? 26. "?????? ?????? / ????????? ????? ??????" ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? / ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? , ????? ????? ??? ( 2012 )
• ???? ?????????? , ????? ????? , ???? ???, 15 ??????? 2019

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• ???? ????, 3.11.1961 / ????????? ?????? ????? ???????? , ???? ???? , 3 ??????? 2011
• ???? ????, ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? , ???? ???? , 2 ?????? 2010
• ??? ?????? ????? , ???? ? ???? ???? ???, 2018
• ???? ??????, ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????: ?? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ????? , ???? ynet , 18 ???? 2022
• ????? , ???? ??????????? ???????? (???????)
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