????????

????? ????????
???? ????????, ???????????? ???????
(????? ???? ?????????? )
????? "?????" ???? ????. ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? , ??? ????? (?????) .
??? ?????? , ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? , ??? ????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??.

?????????????? ?? ???????????? [1] ( Liberalism ; ?????? ? ?????? Libertas, ???????: '?????' [2] ) ??? ????????? ??????? ???????????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? , ?? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????, ?????? ???????. ????????? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ????? , [3] ????? ??????? , [4] ???? ??? , ????? ??? ??????? , ???? ???????? , ???? ?????? , ???? ?????? , ??? ????? , ????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ? ?????? ??????????? . ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??????????? ????????, ????? ????????? ?????? ? ????????? ?????? .

????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??????? , ?? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ????????? ? ??????? ? ???? . ???????? ? ????? ?'?? ??? , ?? ???? ?-17 , ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?????????. ?'?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? , ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????, ????? ?????. ???? ?????? ???, ??? ???, ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??????, ??? ????? ?? ??? ???. [5] ?????, ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ???, ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ????????.

???? ???? ?-18 ?????? ???? ?-19 ?? ????????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ? ???????? , ??????? ???? ?? ? ????? , ? ????????? (?????, ??????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ) ??? ? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????, ?????? ??????? ? ???? ?????? . ??????? ? ????? ????????? , ? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???.

??? ????? ??? ????????? ??? ????? ? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ??????????? ??? ???? ???? ????. ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ???????? (?? ??? ?? ???? ????????? ????????-???? ????????) ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????????? ??????????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????????? ? ???????? .

?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ????? '????????' ????? ? ?????? '????' (liber) ?????? '??? ?????', ?????, ?? ????? ??? . ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? '???????' ( liberalis ) ?????? "????? ???? ?????" (??? ?????? ???? ????? '???????-??????' ? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????). ????? ???? ?-18 ???? ????? ??????? ??????? "????? ? ??? ????? ". ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? 1812 ?? ??? "???????" (???????). ???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????, ???? 1840 ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ? ????? ???????? . [2] [6] [7] ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? "??????????????????". [8]

???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ? ?????? ????-?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ' ????? '.

?? ?? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????, ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ? ?? ?????? . ???? ?-6 ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?'??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????. [9] [?] ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??????. ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????, ??? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? (???? ????? ??????). [10] ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? "????" ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????, ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ? ???????????? ?? ?????? . [11] ?????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????, ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????. ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????????. ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ?????????????? ???????? ??????. ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????. [12] [13] [14]

??? ??? ??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? 1215 ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?'??, ??? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ? ???? ???? ???????? (???????: "??? ???????? ?????"), ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ????, ??? ????? ???? ???????, ????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????. ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? , ??? ???????? ?????????. [15] ????? ??????? ( 1225 ? 1274 ), ???? ????? ???? ????? ? ????????? ???????, ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????, ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? -?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????. ?? ?????????? ????? ?? ???? ?-14 ??? ?'???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????, ????? ????, ??????? ???? ??????. [16]

?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ? ??? ??????? , ????? ??? ???? ?-12 ? ??? ?-15 , ?? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ???, ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? , ???????? ??????? ?????. ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????. ??? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ????????, ???? ??????????? ????, ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???????. [17] ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ????? ?? ????, [?] ???, ?????? ? ???? ?????? , ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????. ????? ??????? ???? ????? ? ???????? ??????? ???? ?-15 ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????, ?????? ??????????. ? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? ? ????????? ??? ? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ????, ?? ????? ?? ? ???????? [?] ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????. [18] ???? ?-16, ????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ? ???????? . ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?-17 ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????? (1648) ????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ??????. ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ????? (1530?1563), ???? ????? ?????????, ????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????. [19]

????? ????????? ??????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? , ??? ???? ???? ?-17 ????? ? ?????? ? ???? . ??????? ????? " ????????? " (Levellers) ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? (1642?1651) ???? ???? ??????? [20] ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????, ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ?? ??? , ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???????. ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????, ?? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????. ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????? (??? ????? ???? ? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? 1679 [?] ), ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? (1688?1689) ????????? ??? ??????? ?? 1689 ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????, ??? ?????? , ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ? ??????? ????????? ? ??????? ?????? (???????? ???? ? ???????? ), ?? ???? ???? ???????.

"?? ???????... ?????? ???? ???????, ?? ???? ????? ?????, ??????? ?? ????? ?? ???" ? ?'?? ???

??? ??????? ?? 1689 ??? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???????. ????? ???? ?'?? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ????? " ?? ????? ?????? " (1689), [?] ??? ?? ? ?????? ?????? , ???? ?????? , ???? ?????? , ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????. ???, ????? ????? ??????, [21] ??? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ????, ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ????. ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????????, ?? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? , ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????. ??? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????????, ????? ??? ?????? ? ??????????? ? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????, ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ???? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???. [?] ?????? ??????? ? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? (?????? ????? 1715?1760), ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? ???????. [?]

?????? ???? ?-19, ?????? ???????, ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????-????? ?? 1829 , ????? ??????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????? , ??? ??? ??????? ?? 1832 ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????. ??? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??'??????? (1838?1848), ????? ???????? ????????? ??????, ?? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????. ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? (????? ??? ????? ??????) ????? ?????? ??, ???????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? (1760?1830), ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ? ????? , ????, ????? ????? ??????? ?????. ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??????. ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????. ????? , ???? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????, ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???????: ”??? ?????? ????? ?? ???????, ?? ??? ????? ?? ??????, ?????? ??, ?????, ?????? ?? ?????, ??? ??????? ?????? ???????” . [23] ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????. ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? , ??? ?????? , ????? ?? ????? ??????????? ????? , ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????.

?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????, ?????? ??? ????? ?????? , ??????? ? ?????? . ??????? ??????????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????, ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ????, ???? ????? ??????? ?????. ????? " ????? ??? , ???? ?????" ("laissez faire, laissez passer", ???????: "??? ?????, ??? ?????") ???? ?? ??? ??????????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???????. ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? , ???? ????? ?????? ??????? , ??????? ?????????? ?? ???????????, ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? , ???? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ???? ?????? , ?? ???? ????' ?? ????? ????? ?????? , ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????. ?????? ? ?????-????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????' ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??????, ???? ????? ???? ? ????? ????? .

???? ?????? ???????? ? ???? ???? , ??????? 1846.

??????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???????. ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? , ?? ???? ?????????? ?????. ???? 1850 ???? ?'?? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? " ?? ?????? " ?? ???? ??? ????? ? ???????? ?? ?'??? ???'? , ????? ?? ?'?? ??? ?????????? ???.

????? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ????; ???? ?????? ?? ??????????? ??? ??. ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ?'?? ??? ?????? ????, ??????? "?????? ?? ???? " ???? 1720. ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? " ??? ??? ", ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????. ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????????. ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? , ???? ??????? " ????????? ??????? " (1835), ? ???? ?????? ?????? , ??????? ??????? "????? ????? ?????" ???? 1845 [24] ???? ????? ? ??? ????? .
????? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ? ????? ????? (1775) , ???? (1789) , ???? (1820) , ??????? (1820) , ????? (1831) ? ?????? (1848) ?????? ????? ? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????. ????? ??????, ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??????, ??? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????, ????? ?????? 1861 ?????? ?? ? ?????? . ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ???????, ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?????-?????? (Cobden?Chevalier Treaty) ???? 1860 ? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????. [25] ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????.

?? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ? ????????? ????????????? ???? ???'???? : [26]

??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????, ????? ???, ???? ?????????? ???????? ????????????, ???? ?? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???-?????. ??? ???, ??????? ???? ???? ?"??????" ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????: ????? ??????? ???????, ?????? ?????????, ?????? ???????. ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????, ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ???.

? ???? ???'????

?????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????

?????? ????????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????. ???? ?????? ??? ?? "?? ??? ????", ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? (1789) ?????? ??????? ?????????, ??? ?????? ????? ?????? (1830) ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ????? "??????", ??? ?? ????????, ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????? (1848) ??? ?? ????? ?????????.

עמוד ראשי
 ??? ?? ? ?????? ?????????

??????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? . ????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????, ?????? ?? ?????? ? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? , ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ???????, ??????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??????. ??? ????? ??? ?????????? ??? ??????????? ????? ???? ?????????. ?????? ?? ????? ??'?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??????????, ???????????? ?????? ?? ????. ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ????, ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? (???? ?? ?????? , ? ?? ??? ), ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????. ???? 1775 ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ???????? ???????, ????? 1776 ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ???????. ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?'????? , ?'???? ?????? ? ????? ???? (?? ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ). ????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??????. ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?"????? ????" ??? ?? ?????? ?????. ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????, ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????. [?] ?? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????, ??? ?? ???? ? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???????. ????? ?????, ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? 1789 ???? ?????? ?????? ???????. ?? ???, ?? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????, ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? , ?????? ?? ???? 1868. ????? ?'?????, ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? , ???? ????? ? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????, ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????. ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????.

? ????????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ??: [27]

?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???????. ??? ?????, ????? ?????, ???? ?? ???? ??. ??? ???? ???????, ??? ?? ???????, ???? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??????. ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????. ??? ?????, ?? ???? ???? ?????, ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????, ?? ????? ???????, ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???, ?? ???? ???, ???? ?????? ???????, ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????, ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????, ???? ????? ??????; ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???, ????? ???, ?????.

? ?. ?. ?????

?????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

עמוד ראשי
 ??? ?? ? ?????? ???????
???? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????. ?????? ??? ?? ?????, ????, ?????? ???????? ???????.

????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? (?????? "????? ??????") ? ????? ?????? (?????? "????? ????") ???? ??????? ??? ????????? ????? ???? ??????, ??? ?????? ??? (????? "????? ??????"), ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ???, ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???????. ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????, ??? ?????? ?????? ?????????, ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????. ???? 1789 ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ????????? (?????? ?????? ????) ?????, ????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???. [?] ??? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ??? 1789 , ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? (???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ???? " ?'????????? ") ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????. ???? ??? ?????? ?????????, ??? ??????? ?????? ??????, ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? , ?? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??????????. ???? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ????? ???????. ???? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????????, ????? ???? ?????? ??. ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????. ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????. ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ????, ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ???????, ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ?? ???????, ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? , ????? ???? ??????, ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???????. ?? ??? ??? 1791 ??? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????, ????? ???????, ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????.

??? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????. ????? ??? ????, ??????? ????????, ???? ? ????????? (???????: "???? ? ??????? "). ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????, ???? ???? ???????, ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??????. ????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??'????????? ??????? ?????. ???? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????, ????? ??'????????? ??????? ???????, ??? ????? ???? ? ????????? ???????? ???? ? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????. ???? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? , ?????? ????? 1793 ????? ????. ???????? ????? ????? ?? "????? ?????", ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? 16,000 ?-40,000 ??? ??? ??????? ????????? . ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???'?????????, ??????? ??? ?????? ??????. ??? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????. ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????. ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????, ???? 1953 ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???????????. ???? ???? ????, ??? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? (???? ????? ????? ), ??? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????, ?????????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?? " ????? ?????? " ? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??, ????? ?????? ????? ????????.

??? ???? ?????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ??? 1871 (?? ??? ????? ??????????? ) ???? ??? 1914 ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ? ???? . ????? ?? ????? ?" ?? ???? " (???????: ????? ????) ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????, ?????????, ????? ?????????. ?? ?? ??? ???????? ???????, ?? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?????????. [28] [29] [30] ??????????? ????????????? , ???? ? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? (1848). ????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????. ????? ????? ????? ?? ? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????????? ??????? , ??????? ?? ?????? ????????. ?????? ?? ????? ???-??????????? ??? ????-???? ?? ??-????? , ????? ????? ? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ???? ? ??????? ????? (1848) ?' ?????? ' ????? ???? (1867) ???? ????? ???. ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?-19 ?????? ???? ?-20 ??? ?? ??? ????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????????.

??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????. ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ? ????? ???????? (?? ????) ???? ???? ?-19, ????? ??? ???? 1910, ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ??????-???????? (?? ????).

????? ????????, ?? ??? ???? ?-19 ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? (???? ?????? ?-1878 [31] ????? ?-1892 [32] ). ???? 1914 ???? ????? ????? ??????? , ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????. ???? 1917 ??? ? ???????? ?????? ? ????? ??????? , ????? 1922 ??? ? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ? ?????? . ???? ?? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????. ???????, ????, ????? ???????? ?????? (1918) ? ????? ????? ??????-???????? ?????? ?????? ???????-???????? ?? ?????? , ??????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? (1913), ?????? ????????? ??????? (1914), ?????? ???? ????? ? ?????? ?????? (1916) ???? ???? ????? ?????? .

???? ????? (1929), ????? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ? ???????? , ????? ???? ??????? ?? ? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? "????-????", Smoot-Hawley, ??????? ? ??? ??? . ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? (????? ??????) ????? ??????? , ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????. ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????, ??????? ???? ??????.

????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?-20 ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????, ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? , ????? ????? ? ????? ????? , ???????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? , ??????? ????? ? ?????? ?????? , ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????????, ????? ??????? ???????? ? ?????? ????? . ????? ?-70 ??-80, ????? ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??????????????, ??? ????????? ?? ????? ???'? (??????? ?????????? ?? ?????) [33] ? ????? ????? (???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ????????), ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????. [?] ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???-???????? , ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???????. [34] ?????? ???? ?-90, ?? ??????? ???? ??????? , ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ? ???? ? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????, ???? ? ????? , ?'??? , ??????? , ??????? ? ??????? . [35] [?"?] ?? ???, ??? ????? ???? ?-90 ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ????.

?????????? ?? ??????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????????? ??????: ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????. ????? ??? ?? ?????????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? , ??????? ???, ??? ????, ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????????, ????? ??????, ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ????? ?????. ?????? ???????, ????? ???, ???? ?? ???? , ????????, ??????????????? ????????????. ????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????. ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???????; ??? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? , ??????? ???????? ??????? ?"????? ???????", ??? ??????? ????? ????, ???????, ???'?? ????? ????? ????, ??????? ?????? ???????. ??? ??? ?? ?????? " ??? ?? " ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????.

?????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? "????????? ?????, ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ?? ????????", ???? ??? "????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?????????". ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? "????????? ?????? ? ?????? " ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????. ???'??? ??? ?? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? "????????? ???? ?? ????", ????????? ?????????? (????????????) ??"????? ???????????".

???? 1848, ?????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? "????? ????????? ????? ????? ????????". ???? ??? ?? "????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????, ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????, ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?????". ????? ????, ????? ???????? "??? ??? ?????? ???? ???????... ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ? ???????, ?????, ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??????".

????? ??????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ???? ?-20 (????? ?-30 ????) ??? ?????? ?????, ?????? ????? ?? ????????, ????? ??????? ????? '????????' ????. [36] ???? ???? ?-20, ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ?????? (?????? ??? ????? ?'???? ?????? , ????? ?'????? , ? ????? ?'???? ), [?"?] ????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ???????? (?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? , ???? ???? ? ????? ??????? ), ??????? ??? ???? ???, ??? ?????????, ????????? [?"?] ??????? ????? ???????. [?"?] ??? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ??????. ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? , ?'?? ????? , ?'?? ???? ??????? ?'?? ??????? ????? . ????, ????? ??????, ??? , ???? ? ???? ?????? , ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????. [37] [38]

???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ???????? ??????

???????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? (???? ?-50)

?????? ??????? ??? " ??????? ??????? " ???? ??????? ????????. [39] [40] [41] ?????, ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????, ??????, ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ? ????? ?????? ? ?????? ?????????????? . ????, ????? ?? ??? ?'???????? , ????? ??????? ??????????????, ????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????????. ??? ??????? ?"??????? ???????" ???????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????. ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ???????. ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? , ??????? ???????, ??????? ???????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? , ?-1951, ??? ?????? '??? ????? ???? ????' ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???"? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????. ?-1961 ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? 17 ??????, ?? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???"? . ?-1965 ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????????? ? ??"? ("??? ????? ???????") ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? (????? ??????-???????). [42] [43] ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ????????? ????????. [44] ???? ???? ?-80 ?????? ???? ?-90 ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? "??? ?????". [45] ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ???? 1977 (??? ?"? ????? ??? ??? , ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???????) ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????. ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?-16 ?? 15 ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? 2006 ???? ??????? ????? ?-17 ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? . ???? 2012 ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?-19 ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ? ?????? ????????. [46] ?????? ???? ?-1.15% ?????? ??????? (?? 43,734 ?????) ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?? 2%. ??? ?????????? ?????? ???????-???? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ????? ????? ????????? ????????. [ ???? ???? ]

???? ???? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ???? ??????? ???? 2011 ???????? ???? ??????-????? ????????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ???????. ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????, ???????? ????? ? ????? ????? . ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ??? , ????? ?????? ????? ?????? (ICSEP) , ??? ??????? ????? , ????? ???????? ???? ????? , ????? "???? ??????", ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? .

??? ????????? " ???? " ??????? ?? ??' ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????-??????. [47] ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????????, ??? ?? ???? ?????????? . [48]

?????? ??? 2023, ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? , ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????. [49] ???? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ?"? ???? ???? , ??"? ??????????. [50]

?? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????, ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????. ?? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????, ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????.

?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????, ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????. ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???. ??? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????. ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????? , ????? ????? (Harm principle) ?? ??? ?'?? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ???-??????? . ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????, ??? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????. [?"?] ??????? ????? ????????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? , ?????????? ? ??????? .

???? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????, ?????, ?? ????? ??????????. ???? ??? ????? ??? ???????:

  1. ???? ????? : ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????????? (??? ????? ???????? ? ???????? ). ???? ??? ???? ?? ???????-?? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ?????. ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????. ????????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????, ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??????, ???? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????. ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?????? .
  2. ????? ?????? : ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? "??????" ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????. ???, ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? (????? ??????, ??????? ???????). ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ????? (???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????). ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??: ”?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????... ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????.”
  3. ??????? : ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??????. ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????, ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????. [?"?]
  4. ???????? : ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??????. ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????, ?? ?? ????? ????????, ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????, ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????.

??????? ??????? (???????? ?????) [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ????? ? ???????????? ?????
  1. ????? " ?? ?????? " ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?-19 ?'?? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????
    ???? ??????, ???????? ?????? : ????????? ???? ? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ? ???? ????? ? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???????, ?????? ???? , ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???. ????? ?'????? ??? ??: ”??????? ????? ?????? ????????, ?????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????” .
  2. ???? ??? ??????? : ????????? ???? ? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????, ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ?????. ?????, ????????? ???? ? ????? ?? ?????? . [?"?]
  3. ???? ???????? ????????? : ????????? ???? ? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????. ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????: ”?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????” . [?"?]
  4. ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????? : ?? ?? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ????, ????? ??? ?????? . ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????, ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????, ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???? , ???????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ????, ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? , ?????? ????.
  5. ?????? ???????? : ????????? ???? ? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ? ???? ????? ???? , ???? ?????.

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??? ????? ? ???????? ?????
???? ????? ???? ????' , ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ?-17, ???? ?????? ????????
  1. ???? ???? : ????????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????, ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ????. ?????, ???? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????, ???????? ????? ?????? ????. ??? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ?"?? ?????", ??? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???????.
  2. ??? ????? : ????????? ???? ? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??????, ??????? ?????? ?????? ??. ?? ?? ????????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????. ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????: ”????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ? ????? ????.” [?"?]
  3. ??? ?? ????? ?????? : ????????? ????? ? ??????? ??????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? . ??? ????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?? ???, ????? ?????? ??????, ???? ????? ??? ?????? (???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????) ?????? ???. ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????.
  4. ???? ???? : ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? , ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ??????. ???, ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????, ? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???? , ??? ?? ? ??????? ???????? ??????. ????? ?'????? ??? ??: ”???? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? [???? ????]” . [?]

??????? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

  1. ??-??????? : ?????? ???? ?????? ???????, ???????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????. ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ? ???????? .
  2. ??????? ????? ??????? : ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??????.

????? ?????? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????, ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????:

  1. ???? ????? : ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????, ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?????????? ???? ???? ???"??? . [?"?]
  2. ?????? ????? : ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????, ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????, ????? ??????? ?? ??????.
  3. ?????? ???? ?????? : ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????, ??? ?? ????? ????????.
  4. ??????? : ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????. [52]
  5. ???? ???? : ?? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???, ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????. ??? ????' ????? "???? ??????" ???? ??: ”??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????, ???? ????? ?? ?????, ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????, ??? ??????? ?????? ????. ??? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ????, ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ????.” [?"?]

?? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? , ????? ??? ???? ?????? ? ???? ?? ??? ????, ??? ???? ???? ????. [ ???? ???? ]

??????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ???????????? ????? ??? ? ??????? ??????? .
??? ????? ? ??????? ??????

??????? ?????? (?? ??????? ???????????????) ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??????. [53] ?????? ?? ????????? ????????? ????? ???????, ???? ?????? ?? ?'?? ??????? ??? ("??????? ?? ????", 1869) [?"?] ? ??? ???????????? ("????? ????????? ?? ????", 1792) [55] ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????. [56] ?????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? , ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?????. ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????-????????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????, ?????, ??????. [57] ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ????. ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????, ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ? ???????? , ????, [58] ?????????? ?? ?? ????? ???, ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????, ????? ????? ????????. ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????, ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ???. ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ?-60 ???? ???? ?-80 ?? ???? ?-20 .

?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

עמוד ראשי
 ??? ?? ? ????????#?????? ???????????, ???????? ???????

?????? ??????? (???? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ) ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??-?????? ???? ?" ????? ??????? " ???????? ???. ?????, ???? ??????? ??-?????? , ????? ????, ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???, ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???????, ???? ????? ???? ??????. ????????? ????? ???? ? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????. ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? [ ???? ???? ] ?? ???? ?????? ??????? (???????), ?? ?? ???? ??????, ????? ????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???, ????? ?? ???, ??????? ??????. ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???. ??? ???? ?? ????????? ??????? (????, ????? ???? ????? ????, ?? ????? ????) ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????. ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???????. ?????, ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ? ???? ?????-??????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????. ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????, ???? ???-?????? ???? ????. ???? ?????? ? ?????????? ????? ????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ????, ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??????. ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????, ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ????. ????? ???????? ? ????-???????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????, ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????, ???? ????? ??????. [59]

??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ????, [?"?] ?????? ???????? (??? ????? ? ??????-???????? ), [?"?] ? ???? ?????? . [?"?] [?"?]

??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ? ???????? ?????????, ?? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????????: ?????? ????????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????, ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????????, ????? ?? ???? ? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??????.

?????? ??????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ????? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????, ?????? ?? ???? ???????, ??????????? ?? ?????? ?????????.

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  • ???????? ????? (?? ???????? ???????, ???????? ?????????, ???????? ??????, ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????): ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????. ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???, ?????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ???, ? ?????? ???? , ????? ? ???? ???????? ???????? ???"? , ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ? ??????? ????? . ?????? ????? ????? ????? '????????' ????????? ???????. ????? ?????? ? ?????? ??????????? ??????.
  • ???????? ????? : ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ????? ????????? ?????.
  • ???????????? (?? ???????? ???-????? ?? ????-???) ??? ????????? ??????? ? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????, ?? ??? ??? ?? ???? ? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??. ???????????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?-20.
  • ?????-???????? ( ??' ) : ??? ?????? ?????, ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?-60 ?? ???? ?-20. ???? ????????? ????????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????.
  • ???-???????? : ???? ????? ??? ? ???? ?-90 ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? , ???? ????? ????. ????? ???? ?????? ?? ? ?? ???? ? ?????????? ?? ' ??????????? ???'. [?"?] ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ???????? ???????.
  • ???????? ????? : ???? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ???????.
  • ???????? ????? : ???? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? .
  • ???????? ????? : ??? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?-19 ?????? ???? ?-20 ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ???????.
  • ???????? ?????? : ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????????????? ???? ?????? ????????. ?????? ???????? ? ????? ? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??-??????? .
  • ???????? ???? : ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? (??????? ????? ??????????).

??? ?? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??? ????????
ויקימילון ??? ?????? ???????????: ????????
ויקישיתוף ?????? ????? ???????????: ????????

??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

  1. ^ ?????? ??? ?? ?'??? ??? ????? ? ??????? . ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???:
    ”The more laws and restrictions there are,

    The poorer people become.
    The sharper men's weapons,
    The more trouble in the land.
    The more ingenious and clever men are,
    The more strange things happen.
    The more rules and regulations,
    The more thieves and robbers.
    Therefore the sage says:
    I take no action and people are reformed.
    I enjoy peace and people become honest.
    I do nothing and the people become rich.

    I have no desires and people return to the good and simple life.”
  2. ^ ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ? ????? .
  3. ^ ??? ???? ??? ???????, ?????? ????.
  4. ^ ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????.
  5. ^ "?? ????? ??????" ????? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????.
  6. ^ ??????: ???, ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? , ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????, ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???????????? ????? ?????? ?? 25% ???? ????? [22] .
  7. ^ ??? ???? ???? ?"????".
  8. ^ ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? 1791 ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???????.
  9. ^ ??? ???? ???? ???, ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????, ???? ????? , ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ????? (????? ????? ?? ???????, ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????) ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ?????.
  10. ^ ?? ?? ?????? ?? ???'? ??? ????????? ???? ?? ?????, ??? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????.
  11. ^ ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?'???.
  12. ^ ????????? ??????, ?????, ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????, ?????? ?????? ??? ????? .
  13. ^ ?????? ??????? ?????.
  14. ^ ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????, ?? ????? ????, ???????? ??????? ???????.
  15. ^ ?? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ?????, ????? ???? ?????? ?????.
  16. ^ ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????.
  17. ^ “The care of souls cannot belong to the civil magistrate.”
  18. ^ “congress shall make no law abridging the right of the people peaceably to assemble.”
  19. ^ When goods don’t cross borders, soldiers will
  20. ^ The central bank is an institution of the most deadly hostility existing against the Principles and form of our Constitution. I am an Enemy to all banks discounting bills or notes for anything but Coin.
  21. ^ ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????' (????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ), ?'?? ???, ??????? ???????, ????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????. ????, ?? ???? ?? ??? ????' ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ????, ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????. [51]
  22. ^ "It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages."
  23. ^ ??????? ?????? ?? ?'?? ??????? ??? "??????? ?? ????" (1869), ??? ??? (?????? ?????? ??????) ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???????????? ????? ???? ??????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????. [54]
  24. ^ ??? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ???? ?"?????" ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???????. ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????, ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ? ??? ????? . [60]
  25. ^ ?????? ????????, ???? ???? ???????? ?? ?????????: ”[?????] ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????????. ??? ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ???? ????????, ??? ??????? ?????? ????????, ?? ???? ???????? ?? ??????, ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????. ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ???????-????????. ?? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????, ?????????? ??? ????? ?????, ?? ?? ???? ?????????, ??? ?? ?????? ????, ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ???????-???????? ????? ????? ????.” [61]
  26. ^ ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????: ”The idea of 'free contract' between the potentate and his starving subject is a sick joke, perhaps worth some moments in an academic seminar exploring the consequences of (in my view, absurd) ideas, but nowhere else.” [62]
  27. ^ ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????: ”Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, both in the political and the economic sphere.” [63]
  28. ^ ??????????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????.

????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

  1. ^ ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? (???? ???"?, ??? 2022) , ???? ??????? ????? ?????? , 9 ????? 2022
  2. ^ 1 2 Online Etymology Dictionary
  3. ^ Principles and objectives of constitutions ? Liberalism
  4. ^ Separation of powers: new perspectives and empirical findings?introduction , Eli Salzberger & Stefan Voigt
  5. ^ Constitutional Rights Foundation ?Locke wrote that all individuals are equal in the sense that they are born with certain "inalienable" natural rights. That is, rights that are God-given and can never be taken or even given away. Among these fundamental natural rights, Locke said, are "life, liberty, and property." , www.crf-usa.org
  6. ^ Etymology of “Liberal” (?????? ???? ????, 31 ?????? 2017)
  7. ^ Liberalism , F. A. Hayek, Enciclopedia del Novicento, 1973
  8. ^ ?????????? ? ??????? ????? ?????????? , ???? ????
  9. ^ Dorn, James A. (2008). Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism . SAGE. p. 282. ISBN   1-4129-6580-2 .
  10. ^ Political Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  11. ^ Irwin, Terence H, A Companion to Aristotle's Politics , Oxford: Blackwell, 1991, ??' 200?25, ISBN  978-1557860989
  12. ^ ??? ????: Economic History Association: The Economy of Ancient Greece
    Throughout most of ancient Greek history before the Hellenistic period, a free enterprise economy with private property and limited government intervention predominated. This places Greece in sharp contrast to most other ancient civilizations, in which governmental or religious institutions tended to dominate the economy.
  13. ^ Gregory F. Rehmke, Rights and Law Among the Ancient Greeks, TheFreeman 47, Foundation for Economic Education, February 1997
  14. ^ Murray N. Rothbard, 2.1, An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought , 1, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1995, ISBN  9780945466482
  15. ^ ????? ????? ???? ??????? .
  16. ^ ???? ????, ?????????, ????????, ??????????? , ‏09/04/2013
  17. ^ Ian Morris, Walter Scheidel, and Mark Lewis, “The first great divergence: China and Europe, 500-800 CE” , Mellon-Sawyer Seminar 2007/8 , Departments of Classics and History, Stanford University, 2007
    ...The most popular answer in this literature was that statism and centralization explained China’s inability to match Europe’s success. Fifteenth-century China was unified into a single state, which meant that emperors like Yongle (1402-1424) who looked outward had the resources to mount spectacular voyages. But by the same token emperors who feared the commercial energies such activities unleashed had the resources to suppress them completely. Fifteenthcentury Europe, by contrast, was highly fragmented, with intense competition both within and between numerous states.
  18. ^ ?????? ?????? , ?? ?????? ????? ?' ???? ???????: ????? ???????? , ????? ???? ????? "????? ?? ??????" , ?? ????, 1999
  19. ^ Murray N. Rothbard, Ending Tyranny Without Violence (The Political Thought of Etienne de La Boetie)
  20. ^ History of the Levellers (?????? ???? ????, 31 ?????? 2017)
  21. ^ Richard Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics and Locke's Two Treatises of Government , Princeton University Press, 1986, ISBN  9780691102054
  22. ^ Murray N. Rothbard, John Locke vs. the Mercantilists and Inflationists
  23. ^ Voltaire, X Letter X , Letters on the English / Lettres Philosophiques , 1733
  24. ^ ?????? ??????, ????? , ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ( ?????? )
  25. ^ Sir Llewellyn Woodward, The Age of Reform, 1815-1870: Second Edition (Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 179.
  26. ^ Murray N. Rothbard, Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature, and Other Essays , Ch. 10. The Meaning of Revolution , Second Edition, Mises Institute, 2000. First published as Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature , by Libertarian Review Press, 1974. (Roy A. Childs, Jr., Ed.)
  27. ^ R. R. Palmer, Age of the Democratic Revolution I , Princeton University Press, 1969, ??' 239-40, ISBN  978-0691005690
  28. ^ DAVID HENDERSON, The Changing Fortunes of Economic Liberalism , The Institute of Economic Affairs, 1998, ISBN  0 255 36520 9
  29. ^ The Decline and Triumph of Classical Liberalism , ?????? Dr Steve Davies, ????? ???? ??????
  30. ^ Richard M. Ebeling, Book Review: Liberalism by John Gray (???????) (?????? ???? ????, 31 ?????? 2017)
  31. ^ Asaf Zussman, The Rise of German Protectionism in the 1870s: A Macroeconomic Perspective , Department of Economics, Hebrew University, ‏2008 ( ?????? )
  32. ^ Golob, Eugene. (1944) The Meline tariff: French Agriculture and Nationalist Economic Policy. New York: Columbia University Press.
  33. ^ John Ranelagh, Thatcher's People: An Insider's Account of the Politics, the Power, and the Personalities (Fontana, 1992), p. ix.
  34. ^ Taylor C. Boas and Jordan Gans-Morse, Neoliberalism: From New Liberal Philosophy to Anti-Liberal Slogan , Studies in Comparative International Development (SCID) 44, 2009, ??' 137-161
  35. ^ Lang, Kai Olaf, Falling Down - The Steady Decline of Central European Liberalism , Central Europe Review 2, 18.9.2000
  36. ^ ????, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans , Perspectives USA The Politics of Hope, Riverside Press, 1962 ”Enough should have been said by now to indicate that liberalism in the American usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any European country, save possibly Britain. Liberalism in America has been a party of social progress rather than of intellectual doctrine, committed to ends rather than to methods. When a laissez-faire policy seemed best calculated to achieve the liberal objective of equality of opportunity for all -- as it did in the time of Jefferson -- liberals believed, in the Jeffersonian phrase, that that government is best which governs least. But, when the growing complexity of industrial conditions required increasing government intervention in order to assure more equal opportunities, the liberal tradition, faithful to the goal rather than to the dogma, altered its view of the state.”
  37. ^ Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans by Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. (1956) from: The Politics of Hope (Boston: Riverside Press, 1962). ”Liberalism in the American usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any European country, save possibly Britain.”
  38. ^ Liberalism, Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012, ”In the United States liberalism is associated with the welfare-state policies of the New Deal program of the Democratic administration of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, whereas in Europe it is more commonly associated with a commitment to limited government and laissez-faire economic policies”
  39. ^ ???? ?????????, ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? , ?????? ?????? ????? 16, ??' 293-342
  40. ^ ???? ?????????, ???????-??????, ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????-??????? , ???? ????????? , 2012, ??' 324-363
  41. ^ ?????? ?? ???? ????????? ('???????-??????, ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????-???????', ???? ????????? , ????? ???? ??-?????? ???? ?????, ??? ???? 2012, ??' 324?363): "??????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????: ???? ?????, ??? ???? ?????: '?????? ????????' ????? ??????, ?????? ????????????? ?????? ????, ?? ???? 1990; ??? ????, ???? ?????? ??????? ?????: ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? 1929?1939, ????? ??, ??????? 1990; ???? ?????, ???? ???? ?????: ?????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???????, ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???????, ??????? ????? 2003. ?? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ??????, ???? ?"? ??? 1959 ??1977. ??? ??????? ???? ??????, '???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????', ????: ??"?, ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????????, ????, ?? ???? 1995, ??' 15?62. ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? )?????(, ??????? ?????? ???? ??????: ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ???????????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????, ??? ???????, ??????? 1979. ???????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???????: ???? ?????, ???? ???????, ????? ????, ?? ???? 1984. ?? ????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??????, ????? ?? ?????????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? Khayyam Paltiel, The Progressive Party: A Study ???. ??????????? ?????? ?? of a Small Party in Israel, Ph.D. dissertation, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 1963;??? ?????, ?????: ???? ???? ?????, ????? ????, ?? ???? 1990."
  42. ^ ?????? ??????? ???????? , ???? "???????? ??? ????"
  43. ^ ???? ?????????, ????? ???????-??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????, 1959?1961 ?????????? ??-?????? ????
  44. ^ ???? ?????????, ????? ???????-??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????, 1959?1961, ?????? ?????? ?????
  45. ^ ?????? ??????
  46. ^ ???? ????, "?? ????? ?? ??????". ??? ???? ???? ????? , ???? ynet , 10 ?????? 2012
  47. ^ ???? - ?????
  48. ^ ???? ??????????, ???? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ???????, ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? , ???? ??????? , 23 ???? 2023
  49. ^ ?????, ????' ??? (2023-02-09). "???? ???? ????? ??? ????: ????????" . Ynet . ???? ?- 2024-03-18 .
  50. ^ ?"? ???? ????, ??"? ?????????? , ???? www.idi.org.il
  51. ^ Thomas D. Birch, An Analysis of Adam Smith's Theory of Charity and the Problems of the Poor , Eastern Economic Journal , 1998
  52. ^ ???? ?????? ?? ?'?? ??? ???? ???? ???????? , 1689.
  53. ^ ?? ?????, Liberal Feminism , Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  54. ^ John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women , ‏1869
  55. ^ ??? "?????? ??????? ?? ????" ?????????? ??????? ? A Vindication of the Rights of Woman .
  56. ^ The roots of feminism , Wendy McElroy
  57. ^ Wendy McElroy, Individualism: A New View Of Feminism , ‏June 22, 2001
  58. ^ (?????? ???? ????, 31 ?????? 2017) ???? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ????
  59. ^ ??????????? ????????
  60. ^ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology , volume 1, chapter 3, part 5. “Stirner” Delighted in His Construction , 1846
  61. ^ Eduard Bernstein, The Tasks and Possibilities of Social Democracy , Evolutionary Socialism , Independent Labour Party, 1899
  62. ^ On Anarchism ? Noam Chomsky interviewed by Tom Lane , 1996
  63. ^ BENITO MUSSOLINI, THE DOCTRINE OF FASCISM , ‏1932


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