Mountain range in Western Asia
The
Zagros Mountains
(
Persian
:
??????? ?????
,
romanized
:
Kuh h?-ye Z?gros
;
Arabic
:
???? ??????
,
romanized
:
Jibal Zaghrus
;
Kurdish
:
??????? ??????
,
romanized:
Ciyakani Zagros
;
[2]
[3]
Turkish
:
Zagros Da?ları
;
Luri
:
Kuya Zagrus
???? ????? or ??? ?? ?????) are a long
mountain range
in
Iran
, northern
Iraq
, and southeastern
Turkey
. The mountain range has a total length of 1,600 km (990 mi). The Zagros range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of southeastern Turkey and northeastern Iraq. From this border region, the range continues southeast under also the waters of the
Persian Gulf
. It spans the southern parts of the
Armenian highlands
, the whole length of the western and southwestern
Iranian plateau
, ending at the
Strait of Hormuz
. The highest point is Mount
Dena
, at 4,409 metres (14,465 ft).
Geology
[
edit
]
SRTM shaded relief anaglyph
of Zagros Mountains
The Zagros Mountains from space, September 1992
[4]
The
Zagros fold and thrust belt
was mainly formed by the
collision
of two
tectonic plates
, the
Eurasian Plate
and the
Arabian Plate
.
[5]
This collision mainly happened during the
Miocene
(about 25?5 million years ago or mya) and folded the entirety of the rocks that had been deposited from the
Paleozoic
(541?242 mya) to the
Cenozoic
(66 mya ? present) in the passive continental margin on the Arabian Plate. However, the
obduction
of
Neotethys
oceanic crust during the
Cretaceous
(145?66 mya), and the
continental arc
collision in the
Eocene
(56?34 mya) both had major effects on uplifts in the northeastern parts of the belt.
The process of collision continues to the present, and as the Arabian Plate is being pushed against the Eurasian Plate, the Zagros Mountains and the
Iranian plateau
are getting higher and higher. Recent
GPS
measurements in
Iran
[6]
have shown that this collision is still active and the resulting deformation is distributed non-uniformly in the country, mainly taken up in the major mountain belts like
Alborz
and Zagros. A relatively dense GPS network which covered the Iranian Zagros
[7]
also proves a high rate of deformation within the Zagros. The GPS results show that the current rate of shortening in the southeast Zagros is ~10 mm/a (0.39 in/year), dropping to ~5 mm/a (0.20 in/year) in the northwest Zagros. The north?south
Kazerun
strike-slip fault
divides the Zagros into two distinct zones of deformation. The GPS results also show different shortening directions along the belt, normal shortening in the southeast, and oblique shortening in the northwest Zagros. The Zagros mountains were created around the time of the second ice age,
[
citation needed
]
which caused the tectonic collision, leading to its uniqueness.
The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of rock salt (acting as a
ductile
decollement
with a low basal
friction
), whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin.
[8]
This different basal friction is partly responsible for the different topographies on either side of the Kazerun fault. Higher topography and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas in the SE, deformation was spread more and a wider zone of deformation with lower topography was formed.
[9]
Stresses induced in the Earth's crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting layered
sedimentary rocks
. Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks, such as
mudstone
(rock formed by consolidated mud) and
siltstone
(a slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such as
limestone
(calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine organisms) and
dolomite
(rocks similar to limestone containing
calcium
and
magnesium
). This differential
erosion
formed the linear ridges of the Zagros Mountains.
The
depositional environment
and tectonic history of the rocks were conducive to the formation and trapping of petroleum, and the Zagros region is an important area for oil production.
Salt domes
and
salt glaciers
are a common feature of the Zagros Mountains. Salt domes are an important target for
petroleum exploration
, as the impermeable salt frequently traps petroleum beneath other rock layers. There is also much water-soluble
gypsum
in the region.
[10]
Type and age of rock
[
edit
]
Glaciers on Dena
The mountains are completely of sedimentary origin and are made primarily of
limestone
. In the Elevated Zagros or the Higher Zagros, the
Paleozoic
rocks can be found mainly in the upper and higher sections of the peaks of the Zagros Mountains, along the Zagros main fault. On both sides of this fault, there are
Mesozoic
rocks, a combination of
Triassic
(252?201 mya) and
Jurassic
(201?145 mya) rocks that are surrounded by
Cretaceous
rocks on both sides. The Folded Zagros (the mountains south of the Elevated Zagros and almost parallel to the main Zagros fault) is formed mainly of
Tertiary
rocks, with the
Paleogene
(66?23 mya) rocks south of the Cretaceous rocks and then the
Neogene
(23?2.6 mya) rocks south of the Paleogene rocks. The mountains are divided into many parallel sub-ranges (up to 10 or 250 km (6.2 or 155.3 mi) wide), and
orogenically
have the same age as the
Alps
.
[11]
Iran's main
oilfields
lie in the western central foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The southern ranges of the
Fars Province
have somewhat lower summits, reaching 4,000 metres (13,000 feet). They contain some limestone rocks showing abundant marine fossils.
[9]
Highest peaks
[
edit
]
The peaks that are at least 3800 meters high and have a
topographic prominence
of at least 300 meters:
|
Name
|
Sub-range
|
Height (m)
|
Prominence (m)
|
1
|
Qash-Mastan
|
Dena
|
4409
|
2604
|
2
|
Kale Qodveis
|
Dena
|
4341
|
424
|
3
|
Pazane Pir
|
Dena
|
4250
|
1080
|
4
|
Kuh-e Dama
|
Dena
|
4216
|
504
|
5
|
Kolonchin
|
Zard-Kuh
|
4221
|
2095
|
6
|
Chegaleh
|
Zard-Kuh
|
4134
|
594
|
7
|
Haft Tanan
|
Zard-Kuh
|
4104
|
653
|
8
|
San-Bor?n
|
Oshtorankuh
|
4150
|
1928
|
9
|
Qalikuh
|
|
4078
|
1420
|
10
|
Shahankuh
|
|
4038
|
1427
|
11
|
Qanbarkosh
|
|
3982
|
316
|
12
|
Haft Cheshmeh
|
|
3975
|
1545
|
13
|
Cheshmeh Kuhrang
|
|
3969
|
360
|
14
|
Karpush
|
|
3961
|
915
|
15
|
Bel
|
|
3943
|
1563
|
16
|
Khurbeh
|
|
3902
|
915
|
17
|
Darab Shah
|
|
3900
|
1495
|
18
|
Piaro Kamandan
|
|
3891
|
370
|
19
|
Hezar Darreh
|
|
3890
|
1628
|
20
|
Kuh-e Hashtad
|
|
3869
|
1248
|
21
|
Chahardah Pahlu
|
|
3845
|
949
|
22
|
Dome Qalikuh
|
|
3839
|
602
|
23
|
Kule Jonou
|
|
3823
|
422
|
History
[
edit
]
Ancient
cobblestoned
pathway in Zagros,
Behbahan
A ceramic ware excavated in Zagros,
Dalma Tepe
The Zagros Mountains have significant ancient history. They were occupied by early humans since the
Lower Paleolithic
Period. The earliest human fossils discovered in Zagros belongs to
Neanderthals
and come from
Shanidar Cave
,
Bisitun Cave
, and
Wezmeh
Cave. The remains of ten
Neanderthals
, dating from around 65,000?35,000 years ago, have been found in the Shanidar Cave.
[12]
The cave also contains two later "
proto-Neolithic
" cemeteries, one of which dates back about 10,600 years and contains 35 individuals.
[13]
Evidence from later
Upper Paleolithic
and
Epipaleolithic
occupations come from Yafteh Cave, Kaldar Cave near Khoramabad, and Warwasi, Malaverd near Kermanshah, Kenacheh Cave in Kurdistan, Boof Cave in Fars and a number of other caves and rock shelters.
[14]
Signs of early agriculture date back as far as 9000 BC in the foothills of the mountains.
[15]
Some settlements later grew into cities, eventually named
Anshan
and
Susa
;
Jarmo
is one archaeological site in this area. Some of the earliest evidence of wine production has been discovered in the mountains; both the settlements of
Hajji Firuz Tepe
and
Godin Tepe
have given evidence of wine storage dating between 3500 and 5400 BC.
[16]
A human
metatarsal bone
fragment from
Wezmeh Cave
has been analyzed and dated to the
Neolithic period
. The DNA from this bone fragment shows that it is from a distinct genetic group, which was not known to scientists before. He belongs to the Y-DNA haplogroup G2b,
[17]
specifically its branch
G-Y37100
,
[18]
and mitochondrial haplogroup J1d6. He had brown eyes, relatively dark skin, and black hair, although Neolithic Iranians carried reduced pigmentation-associated alleles in several genes and derived alleles at 7 of the 12 loci, showing the strongest signatures of selection in ancient Eurasians. He did not contribute to the genetic makeup of
early European farmers
or modern
Europeans
. Instead, he was the most genetically similar to modern
Iranian Zoroastrians
, followed by
Fars
,
Balochi
,
Brahui
,
Kalash
and
Georgians
.
[19]
Gallego-Llorente et al. (2016) believes that the Zagros Mountain was a plausible source of Eurasian ancestry in Central and South Asia, along with
Kotias
, which was inhabited by Caucasu Hunter-Gatherers. He cites archaeological evidence of eastward Neolithic expansions from the Near East.
[20]
During early ancient times, the Zagros was the home of peoples such as the
Hurrians
,
Guti
,
Kassites
,
Elamites
and
Mitanni
, who periodically invaded the
Sumerian
and/or
Akkadian
cities of
Mesopotamia
. The mountains create a geographic barrier between the
Mesopotamian
Plain, which is in
Iraq
, and the
Iranian plateau
. A small archive of clay tablets detailing the complex interactions of these groups in the early second millennium BC has been found at
Tell Shemshara
along the
Little Zab
.
[21]
Tell Bazmusian
, near Shemshara, was occupied between 5000 BCE and 800 CE, although not continuously.
[22]
Population
[
edit
]
The Zagros mountains have been inhabited by different groups of pastoralists and farmers for thousands of years. Pastoralist groups such as
Lurs
,
Bakhtiari Lurs
,
Kurds
or
Qashqais
move from their herds from the east slopes in summer (
Yeyl?gh
) to the west slopes in winter (
Gheshl?gh
). Some major cities are located on the foothills of the Zagros mountains, including
Sulaymaniyah
,
Kermanshah
,
Khorramabad
, and
Shiraz
.
Lurs
[
edit
]
The
Lurs
are an Iranic tribe, primarily inhabiting the Central, Western, and Southern Zagros. Cities inhibited by Lurs include
Khorramabad
,
Borujerd
,
Malayer
,
Izeh
,
Shahr-e Kord
,
Yasuj
. Lurs speak
Luri
and span across many provinces in Iran including
Lorestan
,
Khuzestan
,
Chaharmahal and Bakthiari
,
Ilam
,
Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad
, and
Hamedan
.
Bakhtiari Lurs
[
edit
]
The
Bakhtiaris
are a
Lur
tribe from
Iran
, primarily inhabiting the Central and South Zagros. Major cities inhabited by Bakhtiaris include
Masjed Soleyman
,
Izeh
and
Shahr-e Kord
. A significant number of Bakhtiari still practice nomadic pastoralism.
Kurds
[
edit
]
A Kurdish girl in the eastern Zagros village of
Palangan
celebrating
Newroz
Kurds
are aborigines from the northwestern and the eastern Zagros
Taurus mountain ranges
, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northern Syria. The high
altitude
of the Zagros mountains produces a series of
choke points
and
valleys
perfect for agriculture and human development.
[23]
It has also long defended the Kurds in times of war by acting as a
natural barrier
.
[24]
Qashqai
[
edit
]
Qashqai people
are a tribal confederation in Iran mostly of
Turkic
origin. Significant populations can be found in Central and South Zagros, especially around the city of
Shiraz
in the
Fars province
.
Climate
[
edit
]
The mountains contain several
ecosystems
. Prominent among them are the forest and
forest steppe
areas with a
semi-arid climate
. As defined by the
World Wildlife Fund
and used in their Wildfinder, the particular terrestrial
ecoregion
of the mid to high mountain area is
Zagros Mountains forest steppe
(PA0446). The annual
precipitation
ranges from 400?800 mm (16?31 in) and falls mostly in winter and spring. Winters are severe, with low temperatures often below ?25 °C (?13 °F). The region exemplifies the continental variation of the
Mediterranean climate
pattern, with a snowy winter and mild, rainy spring, followed by a dry summer and autumn.
[25]
Climate data for Amadiya District, Iraq
|
Month
|
Jan
|
Feb
|
Mar
|
Apr
|
May
|
Jun
|
Jul
|
Aug
|
Sep
|
Oct
|
Nov
|
Dec
|
Year
|
Mean daily maximum °C (°F)
|
?0.2
(31.6)
|
1.4
(34.5)
|
6.4
(43.5)
|
12.2
(54.0)
|
19.3
(66.7)
|
24.8
(76.6)
|
29.7
(85.5)
|
29.6
(85.3)
|
25.6
(78.1)
|
17.7
(63.9)
|
9.7
(49.5)
|
2.7
(36.9)
|
14.9
(58.8)
|
Mean daily minimum °C (°F)
|
?8.0
(17.6)
|
?6.8
(19.8)
|
?2.0
(28.4)
|
3.5
(38.3)
|
8.8
(47.8)
|
13.0
(55.4)
|
17.3
(63.1)
|
16.9
(62.4)
|
13.0
(55.4)
|
7.2
(45.0)
|
2.1
(35.8)
|
?4.3
(24.3)
|
5.1
(41.1)
|
Source:
[26]
|
Glaciation
[
edit
]
The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (4,135 m (13,566 ft)), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4,374 m (14,350 ft)) and Kuh-i-Hezar (4,469 m (14,662 ft)) do not currently have glaciers. Only at
Zard Kuh
and
Dena
some glaciers still survive. However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a depth in excess of 1,900 metres (1.2 miles), and during the Last Glacial Period to a depth in excess of 2,160 metres (7,090 feet). Evidence exists of a 20 km (12 mi) wide glacier fed along a 17 km (11 mi) long valley dropping approximately 1,600 m (5,200 ft) along its length on the north side of Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of 350?550 m (1,150?1,800 ft). Under conditions of precipitation comparable to current climatic record-keeping, this size of glacier could be expected to form where the annual average temperature was between 10.5 and 11.2 °C (50.9 and 52.2 °F), but since conditions are expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier was formed, the temperature must have been lower.
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
Flora and fauna
[
edit
]
Flora
[
edit
]
Although currently degraded through
overgrazing
and
deforestation
, the Zagros region is home to a rich and complex flora. Remnants of the originally widespread
oak
-dominated woodland can still be found, as can the park-like
pistachio
/
almond
steppelands. The ancestors of many familiar foods, including wheat,
barley
,
lentil
, almond,
walnut
, pistachio,
apricot
,
plum
,
pomegranate
and grape can be found growing wild throughout the mountains.
[32]
Quercus brantii
(covering more than 50% of the Zagros forest area) is the most important tree species of the Zagros in Iran.
[33]
Other floral
endemics
found within the mountain range include:
Allium iranicum
,
Astragalus crenophila
,
Bellevalia kurdistanica
,
Cousinia carduchorum
,
Cousinia odontolepis
,
Echinops rectangularis
,
Erysimum boissieri
,
Iris barnumiae
,
Ornithogalum iraqense
,
Scrophularia atroglandulosa
,
Scorzonera kurdistanica
,
Tragopogon rechingeri
, and
Tulipa kurdica
.
[34]
Fauna
[
edit
]
The Zagros are home to many
threatened
and
endangered
species, including the
Zagros Mountains mouse-like hamster
(
Calomyscus bailwardi
), the
Basra reed-warbler
(
Acrocephalus griseldis
) and the
striped hyena
(
Hyena hyena
). The
Persian fallow deer
(
Dama dama mesopotamica
), an ancient
domesticate
once thought extinct, was rediscovered in the late 20th century in
Khuzestan
Province, in the southern Zagros. Also,
wild goats
can be found almost all over the Zagros mountain range.
In the late 19th century, the
Asiatic lion
(
Panthera leo persica
)
[35]
inhabited the southwestern part of the mountains. It is now extinct in this region.
[36]
The
Luristan newt
(
Neurergus kaiseri
) is a
salamander
endemic
to a small section of the central Zagros Mountains in Iran. It lives in highland streams and is primarily aquatic. This newt is considered
vulnerable
to extinction due to poaching for the
pet trade
and
habitat destruction
.
Climate change
is predicted to strongly impact this species.
[37]
Religion
[
edit
]
The entrance to the
ancient Mesopotamian underworld
was believed to be located in the Zagros Mountains in the far east.
[38]
A staircase led down to the gates of the underworld.
[38]
The underworld itself is usually located even deeper below ground than the
Abzu
, the body of freshwater which the ancient Mesopotamians believed lay deep beneath the earth.
[38]
Gallery
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Parts of the Zagros Mountains
[
edit
]
Other
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
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.
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.
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a
b
c
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