Form of government
A
stratocracy
(from
Ancient Greek
στρατ??
(
stratos
)
'
army
', and
κρ?το?
(
kratos
)
'dominion, power'),
[2]
also called
stratiocracy
,
[3]
[4]
[5]
is a
form of government
headed by military chiefs.
[6]
The
branches of government
are administered by military forces, the government is legal under the laws of the jurisdiction at issue, and is usually carried out by military workers.
Description of stratocracy
[
edit
]
The word stratocracy first appeared in 1652 from the
political theorist
Robert Filmer
, being preceded in 1649 by
stratokratia
used by
Claudius Salmasius
in reference to the newly declared
Commonwealth of England
.
[1]
[8]
John Bouvier
and Daniel Gleason describe a stratocracy as one where citizens with mandatory or voluntary military service, or veterans who have been
honorably discharged
, have the right to elect or govern. The military's
administrative
,
judicial
, and/or
legislative
powers are supported by law, the constitution, and the society.
[6]
It does not necessarily need to be
autocratic
or
oligarchic
by nature in order to preserve its right to rule. The political scientist
Samuel Finer
distinguished between stratocracy which was rule by the army and military regimes where the army did not rule but enforced the rule of the civil leaders.
[9]
Peter Lyon wrote that through history stratocracies have been relatively rare, and that in the latter half of the twentieth century there has been a noticeable increase in the number of stratocratic states due to the "rapid collapse of the West European
thalassocracies
".
[8]
Notable examples of stratocracies
[
edit
]
Historical stratocracies
[
edit
]
Sparta
[
edit
]
The
Diarchy
of
Sparta
was a stratocratic kingdom.
[10]
From a young age, male
Spartans
were put through the
agoge
, necessary for full-citizenship, which was a rigorous education and training program to prepare them to be warriors.
[11]
Aristotle
describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. iii. 1285a), while
Isocrates
refers to the Spartans as "subject to an
oligarchy
at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. 24).
[12]
Rome
[
edit
]
One of the most distinguished and, perhaps, long-lived examples of a stratocratic state, is
Ancient Rome
, though the stratocratic system developed over time.
[13]
Following the disposition of the last
Roman king
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
, Rome became an
oligarchic Republic
.
[14]
[15]
However, with the gradual expansion of the empire and conflicts with its rival
Carthage
which eventually led to the
Punic Wars
, the Roman political and military system experienced drastic changes.
[16]
Following the so-called "
Marian reforms
", de facto political power became concentrated under military leadership, as the loyalty of the legionaries shifted from the Senate to its generals.
[17]
Through the
First Triumvirate
[18]
this led to, following a
series of civil wars
, the formation of the
Roman Empire
, the
head of which
was acclaimed as "
Imperator
", previously an honorary title for distinguished military commanders.
[19]
Following the formation of the Empire, the
Roman Army
either approved of or acquiesced in the accession of an emperor, with the
Praetorian Guard
having a decisive role in the succession until Emperor
Constantine
abolished it.
[20]
Militarization of the Empire increased over time and emperors were increasingly beholden to their armies and fleets, yet how active emperors were in actually commanding in the field in military campaigns varied from emperor to emperor, even from dynasty to dynasty. The vital political importance of the army persisted up until the destruction of the
Eastern (Byzantine) Empire
with the
fall of Constantinople
in 1453.
[21]
Goryeo
[
edit
]
From 1170 to 1270, the kingdom of
Goryeo
was under
effective military rule
, with puppet kings on the throne serving mainly as figureheads.
[22]
The majority of this period was spent under the rule of the
Choe
family, who set up a parallel system of private administrative systems from their military forces.
[23]
Cossacks
[
edit
]
Cossacks
were predominantly
East Slavic
people who became known as members of democratic, semi-military and semi-naval communities, predominantly located in
Ukraine
and in
Southern Russia
.
[24]
They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower
Dnieper
,
[25]
Don
,
Terek
, and
Ural
river basins, and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both
Russia
and Ukraine.
[26]
The
Zaporozhian Sich
[27]
was a Cossack semi-autonomous polity and
proto-state
[28]
that existed between the 16th and 18th centuries, and existed as an independent stratocratic state as the
Cossack Hetmanate
for over a hundred years.
[29]
[30]
[31]
Military frontier of the Habsburg monarchy
[
edit
]
The
Military Frontier
was a
borderland
of the
Habsburg monarchy
(which became the
Austrian Empire
and later the
Austro-Hungarian Empire
).
[32]
[33]
The military frontier acted as the
cordon sanitaire
against incursions from the
Ottoman Empire
. Located in the southern part of Hungarian crown land, the frontier was separated from local jurisdiction and was under direct
Viennese
central military administration from the 1500s to 1872. Unlike the rest of the Catholic dominated territory of the empire, the frontier area had relatively freer religious laws in order to attract settlements into the area.
[34]
[35]
[36]
Modern stratocracies
[
edit
]
The closest modern equivalent to a stratocracy, the
State Peace and Development Council
of
Myanmar
(Burma), which ruled from 1997 to 2011,
[37]
arguably differed from most other military dictatorships in that it completely abolished the civilian constitution and legislature.
[38]
[39]
A
new constitution
that came into effect in 2010 cemented the
Tatmadaw
's hold on power through mechanisms such as reserving 25% of the seats in the
legislature
for military personnel.
[40]
The civilian constitutional government was dissolved again in the
2021 Myanmar coup d'etat
, with power being transferred back to the Tatmadaw through the
State Administration Council
.
[41]
The
United Kingdom
overseas territory
, the
Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia
on the
island of Cyprus
, provides another example of a stratocracy:
British Forces Cyprus
governs the territory, with
Air vice-marshal
Peter J. M. Squires
serving as administrator from 2022.
[42]
The territory is subject to unique laws different from both those of the
United Kingdom
and those of
Cyprus
.
[43]
States argued to be stratocratic
[
edit
]
The political scientist
Harold Lasswell
wrote in 1941 of his concerns that the world was moving towards "a world of 'garrison states
'
" with the
United States of America
being one of the countries moving in that direction.
[10]
This was supported by the historian Richard Kohn in 1975 commenting on the US's creation of a military state during its early independence, and the political scientist Samuel Fitch in 1985.
[10]
The historian
Eric Hobsbawm
has used the existence and power of the
military-industrial complex
in the US as evidence of it being a stratocratic state.
[10]
The expansion and prioritisation of the military during the administrations of
Reagan
and
H. W. Bush
have also been described as signs of stratocracy in the US.
[44]
The
futurist
Paul Saffo
[45]
and the researcher Robert Marzec
[46]
have argued that the
post 9/11
projection of the United States was trending towards stratocracy.
USSR
[
edit
]
The philosopher and economist
Cornelius Castoriadis
wrote in his 1980 text,
Facing the War
, that Russia had become the primary world military power. To sustain this, in the context of the visible economic inferiority of the
Soviet Union
in the civilian sector, he proposed that the society may no longer be dominated by the
one-party state
bureaucracy of the
Communist Party
but by a "stratocracy"
[47]
[48]
[49]
describing it as a separate and dominant military sector with expansionist designs on the world.
[50]
[51]
He further argued that this meant there was no internal class dynamic that could lead to social revolution within Russian society and that change could only occur through foreign intervention.
Timothy Luke
agreed that under the secretaryship of
Mikhail Gorbachev
this was the USSR moving towards a stratocratic state.
[52]
African states
[
edit
]
Various countries in post-colonial
Africa
have been described as stratocracies.
[53]
The
Republic of Egypt
under the leadership of
Nasser
was described by the political theorist
P. J. Vatikiotis
as a stratocratic state.
[54]
The recent Egyptian governments since the
Arab Spring
,
[55]
[56]
including that of
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
, have also been called stratocratic.
[57]
George commented in a 1988 paper that the military dictatorship of
Idi Amin
in
Uganda
and the
apartheid regime
in
South Africa
should be considered stratocracies.
Various previous Nigerian governments have been described as stratocratic in research, including the government under
Olusegun Obasanjo
, and the
Armed Forces Ruling Council
led by
Ibrahim Babangida
.
[59]
Under the 1978 constitution of
eSwatini
Sobhuza II
appointed the Swazi army commander as the country's prime minister, and the second-in-command of the army as the head of the civil service board. This fusing of military and civil power continued in subsequent appointments, with many of the appointees viewing their civil roles as secondary to their military positions.
[60]
Ghana
under
Jerry Rawlings
has also been described as being stratocratic in nature.
[44]
Karl Marx's
term of
barracks socialism
was retermed by the political scientist Michel Martin in their description of socialist stratocracies in the
Middle East
,
Latin America
, and
Africa
, including specifically the
People's Republic of Benin
.
[61]
[62]
Martin also believes the
praetorianism
of francophone African republics can be called stratocratic, including the
Cote d'Ivoire
and the
Central African Republic
.
[63]
Other
[
edit
]
The French historian
Francois Raguenet
wrote in 1691 of the stratocracy of
Oliver Cromwell
in the
Protectorate
, and commented that he believed
William III of England
was seeking to revive the stratocracy in England.
[64]
The
Prussian
military writer
Georg Henirich von Berenhorst
wrote in hindsight that ever since the reign of the
soldier king
, Prussia always remained "not a country with an army, but an army with a country" (a quote often misattributed to
Voltaire
and
Honore Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau
).
[65]
It has been argued the subsequent dominance of the
Kingdom of Prussia
in the
North German Confederation
and
German Empire
and the expansive
militarism
in their administrations and policies, saw a continuance of the stratocratic Prussian government.
[66]
British commentators such as
Sir Richard Burton
described the pre-
Tanzimat
Ottoman Empire
as a stratocratic state.
[67]
The
Warlord Era
of China is viewed as period of stratocratic struggles
[68]
with the researcher Peng Xiuliang pointing to the actions and policies of
Wang Shizhen
, a general and politician of the
Republic of China
, as an example of the stratocratic forces within the Chinese government of the time.
[69]
Occupied Poland in World War I
was put under the
General-Militargouvernementen
(general military governments) of Germany and
Austria-Hungary
. This government was a stratocratic system where the military was responsible for the political administration of Poland.
[70]
Various
military juntas
of
central and south America
have also been described as stratocracies.
[71]
Since 1967, the
Israeli occupation
of the
West Bank
,
East Jerusalem
(both taken from
Jordan
),
Sinai Peninsula
,
Gaza Strip
(taken from
Egypt
) and the
Golan Heights
(taken from
Syria
) after the
Six-Day War
can be argued to have been under stratocratic rule.
[72]
While the West Bank and Gaza were governed by the
Israeli Military Governorate
and
Civil Administration
[73]
which was later given to the
Palestinian National Authority
that governs the
Palestinian territories
, only
East Jerusalem
and the
Golan Heights were annexed into Israeli territory
from 1980 which is still internationally unrecognized and once referred to these territories by the
United Nations
as
occupied Arab territories
.
[74]
[75]
Fictional stratocracies
[
edit
]
Stratocratic forms of government have been popular in fictional stories.
- The country of Amestris in the
Fullmetal Alchemist
manga and
anime series
is a nominal parliamentary republic without elections,
[77]
where parliament has been used as a facade to distract from the authoritarian regime,
[77]
as the government is almost completely centralized by the military, and the majority of government positions are occupied by military personnel.
- Bowser
from the
Super Mario
video game franchise is the supreme leader of a stratocratic empire in which he has many other generals working under his militaristic rules such as Kamek, Private Goomp, Sergeant Guy, Corporal Paraplonk and many others.
- The
Cardassian Union
of the
Star Trek
universe can be described as a stratocracy, with a constitutionally and socially sanctioned, as well as a politically dominant military that nonetheless has immense
totalitarian
characteristics.
- In
Bryan Konietzko
and
Michael Dante DiMartino
's
Avatar: The Last Airbender
, the Earth Kingdom is very divided and during the Hundred Year War relies on an unofficial
confederal
stratocratic rule of small towns to maintain control from the Fire Nation's military, without the Earth Monarch's assistance.
- Both Eldia and Marley from the Japanese manga and anime series
Attack on Titan
are stratocratic nations ruled by military governments. After a
coup d'etat
, the government of Eldia was displaced in favor of a military-led system with a puppet monarchy as its public front.
[78]
- The
Galactic Empire
from the original
Star Wars
trilogy can be described as a stratocracy. Although ruled by the Sith through its Emperor,
Sheev Palpatine
, known secretly as Darth Sidious, the functioning of the entire government was controlled by the military and explicitly sanctioned by its leaders. All sectors were controlled by a Moff or Grand Moff who were also high-ranking military officers.
- The Global Defense Initiative from the
Command & Conquer
franchise is another example: initially being a
United Nations
task force to combat the Brotherhood of Nod and research the alien substance Tiberium, later expanding to a worldwide government led by military leaders
[79]
after the collapse of society due to Tiberium's devastating effects on Earth.
[80]
- Blizzard Entertainment
's
World of Warcraft
features an antagonistic group of
Orcish
clans, which joined in the formation of
The Iron Horde
, a militaristic clan governed by
warlords
.
- In
Robert A. Heinlein
's
Starship Troopers
, the
Terran Federation
was set up by a group of military veterans in
Aberdeen, Scotland
when governments collapsed following a
world war
.
[81]
While
national service
is voluntary, earning
citizenship
in the Federation requires civilians to "enroll in the Federal Service of the Terran Federation for a term of not less than two years and as much longer as may be required by the needs of the Service."
[82]
[83]
While Federal Service is not exclusively military service, that appears to be the dominant form. It is believed that only those willing to sacrifice their lives on the state's behalf are fit to govern. While the government is a representative democracy, the franchise is only granted to people who have completed service, mostly in the military, due to this law (active military can neither vote nor serve in political/non-military offices).
- The
Turian Hierarchy
of
Mass Effect
is another example of a fictional stratocracy, where the civilian and military populations cannot be distinguished, and the government and the military are the same, and strongly meritocratic, with designated responsibilities for everyone.
[84]
[85]
- The five members of Greater Turkiye in the manga and anime
Altair: A Record of Battles
are called stratocracies, with them being based on the
Ottoman Empire
.
[86]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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