Political and economic policies implemented by Joseph Stalin
Stalinism
is the
totalitarian
[1]
[2]
[3]
means of governing and
Marxist?Leninist
policies implemented in the
Soviet Union
(USSR) from
1927 to 1953
by dictator
Joseph Stalin
. Stalin had previously made a career as a
gangster
and
robber
,
[4]
working to fund revolutionary activities, before eventually becoming
General Secretary of the Soviet Union
. Stalinism included the creation of a
one man
[5]
[6]
totalitarian
police state
, rapid
industrialization
, the theory of
socialism in one country
(until 1939), forced
collectivization of agriculture
,
intensification of class conflict
, a
cult of personality
,
[7]
[8]
and subordination of the interests of foreign
communist parties
to those of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
, which Stalinism deemed the leading
vanguard party
of
communist revolution
at the time.
[9]
After Stalin's death and the
Khrushchev Thaw
, a period of
de-Stalinization
began in the 1950s and 1960s, which caused the influence of Stalin's ideology to begin to wane in the USSR.
Stalin's regime forcibly purged society of what it saw as threats to itself and its brand of communism (so-called "
enemies of the people
"), which included
political dissidents
, non-
Soviet nationalists
, the
bourgeoisie
, better-off peasants ("
kulaks
"),
and those of the
working class
who demonstrated "
counter-revolutionary
" sympathies.
[11]
This resulted in mass
repression
of such people and
their families
, including mass arrests,
show trials
, executions, and imprisonment in
forced labor
camps known as
gulags
.
[12]
The most notorious examples were the
Great Purge
and the
Dekulakization
campaign. Stalinism was also marked by militant atheism, mass
anti-religious persecution
,
[13]
[14]
and
ethnic cleansing
through
forced deportations
.
[15]
Some historians, such as
Robert Service
, have blamed Stalinist policies, particularly collectivization, for causing
famines
such as the
Holodomor
.
[13]
Other historians and scholars disagree on Stalinism's role.
[16]
Officially designed to accelerate development toward
communism
, the need for
industrialization in the Soviet Union
was emphasized because the Soviet Union had previously fallen behind economically compared to Western countries and also because socialist society needed industry to face the challenges posed by internal and external enemies of communism.
Rapid industrialization was accompanied by mass collectivization of agriculture and rapid
urbanization
, which converted many small villages into
industrial cities
.
To accelerate industrialization's development, Stalin imported materials, ideas, expertise, and workers from western Europe and the United States,
[19]
pragmatically setting up
joint-venture
contracts with major American
private enterprises
such as the
Ford Motor Company
, which, under state supervision, assisted in developing the basis of the industry of the
Soviet economy
from the late 1920s to the 1930s. After the American private enterprises had completed their tasks, Soviet
state enterprises
took over.
History
Stalinism is used to describe the period during which
Joseph Stalin
was the
leader
of the Soviet Union while serving as
General Secretary
of the
Central Committee
of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union
from 1922 to his death on 5 March 1953.
[20]
Etymology
The term
Stalinism
came into prominence during the mid-1930s when
Lazar Kaganovich
, a Soviet politician and associate of Stalin, reportedly declared: "Let's replace Long Live
Leninism
with Long Live Stalinism!"
Stalin dismissed this as excessive and contributing to a
cult of personality
he thought might later be used against him by the same people who praised him excessively, one of those being Khrushchev—a prominent user of the term during Stalin's life who was later responsible for de-Stalinization and the beginning of the Revisionist period.
Stalinist policies
Some historians view Stalinism as a reflection of the ideologies of
Leninism
and
Marxism
, but some argue that it is separate from the
socialist
ideals it stemmed from. After a political struggle that culminated in the defeat of the
Bukharinists
(the "Party's
Right Tendency
"), Stalinism was free to shape policy without opposition, ushering in an era of harsh
totalitarianism
that worked toward rapid
industrialization
regardless of the human cost.
[24]
From 1917 to 1924, though often appearing united, Stalin,
Vladimir Lenin
, and
Leon Trotsky
had discernible ideological differences. In his dispute with Trotsky, Stalin de-emphasized the role of workers in advanced
capitalist countries
(e.g., he considered the
U.S. working class
"bourgeoisified"
labor aristocracy
).
All other
October Revolution
1917
Bolshevik
leaders regarded their revolution more or less as just the beginning, with Russia as the springboard on the road toward worldwide revolution. Stalin introduced the idea of
socialism in one country
by the autumn of 1924, a theory standing in sharp contrast to Trotsky's
permanent revolution
and all earlier socialistic theses. The revolution did not spread outside Russia as Lenin had assumed it soon would. The revolution had not succeeded even within other former territories of the
Russian Empire
―such as
Poland
,
Finland
,
Lithuania
,
Latvia
, and
Estonia
. On the contrary, these countries had returned to
capitalist
bourgeois
rule.
[25]
He is an unprincipled intriguer, who subordinates everything to the preservation of his own power. He changes his theory according to whom he needs to get rid of.
Bukharin on Stalin's theoretical position, 1928.
[26]
Despite this, by the autumn of 1924, Stalin's notion of socialism in
Soviet Russia
was initially considered next to
blasphemy
by other
Politburo members
, including
Zinoviev
and
Kamenev
to the intellectual left;
Rykov
,
Bukharin
, and
Tomsky
to the pragmatic right; and the powerful Trotsky, who belonged to no side but his own. None would even consider Stalin's concept a potential addition to communist ideology. Stalin's socialism in one country doctrine could not be imposed until he had come close to being the Soviet Union's
autocratic ruler
around 1929. Bukharin and the
Right Opposition
expressed their support for imposing Stalin's ideas, as Trotsky had been exiled, and Zinoviev and Kamenev had been expelled from the party.
[27]
In a 1936 interview with journalist
Roy W. Howard
, Stalin articulated his rejection of
world revolution
and said, "We never had such plans and intentions" and "The export of revolution is nonsense".
[28]
[29]
[30]
Proletarian state
Traditional communist thought holds that the state will gradually "
wither away
" as the implementation of socialism reduces class distinction. But Stalin argued that the
proletarian state
(as opposed to the
bourgeois state
) must become stronger before it can wither away. In Stalin's view,
counter-revolutionary
elements will attempt to derail the transition to
full communism
, and the state must be powerful enough to defeat them. For this reason,
communist regimes
influenced by Stalin are
totalitarian
.
[31]
Other leftists, such as
anarcho-communists
, have criticized the
party-state
of the Stalin-era Soviet Union, accusing it of being bureaucratic and calling it a
reformist
social democracy
rather than a form of revolutionary communism.
[32]
Sheng Shicai
, a Chinese
warlord
with Communist leanings, invited Soviet intervention and allowed Stalinist rule to extend to
Xinjiang
province in the 1930s. In 1937, Sheng conducted a purge similar to the
Great Purge
, imprisoning, torturing, and killing about 100,000 people, many of them
Uyghurs
.
[33]
[34]
Ideological repression and censorship
Main articles:
August Uprising
,
Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan
,
Stalinist repressions in Mongolia
,
Dekulakization
,
Doctors' plot
,
Anti-cosmopolitan campaign
,
Industrial Party Trial
,
Sharashka
,
Night of the Murdered Poets
,
UPTI Affair
,
Wrecking (Soviet Union)
,
1931 Menshevik Trial
,
Pavlovian session
,
Law of Spikelets
,
Blacklisting (Soviet policy)
,
Shakhty Trial
, and
Korets?Landau leaflet
| This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
May 2024
)
|
Cybernetics
: a reactionary pseudoscience that appeared in the U.S.A. after World War II and also spread through other capitalist countries. Cybernetics clearly reflects one of the basic features of the bourgeois worldview?its inhumanity, striving to transform workers into an extension of the machine, into a tool of production, and an instrument of war. At the same time, for cybernetics an imperialistic utopia is characteristic?replacing living, thinking man, fighting for his interests, by a machine, both in industry and in war. The instigators of a new world war use cybernetics in their dirty, practical affairs.
"Cybernetics" in the
Short Philosophical Dictionary
, 1954
[35]
Under Stalin, repression was extended to academic scholarship, the natural sciences,
[36]
and literary fields.
[37]
In particular, Einstein's
theory of relativity
was subject to public denunciation, many of his ideas were rejected on ideological grounds
[38]
and condemned as "bourgeois idealism" in the Stalin era.
[39]
A policy of ideological repression impacted various disciplinary fields such as
genetics
,
[40]
cybernetics
,
[41]
biology
,
[42]
linguistics
,
[43]
[44]
physics
,
[45]
sociology
,
[46]
psychology
,
[47]
pedology
,
[48]
mathematical logic
,
[49]
economics
[50]
and
statistics
.
[51]
Pseudoscientific
theories of
Trofim Lysenko
were favoured over other scientific disciplines during the Stalin era.
[41]
Soviet scientists were forced to denounce any work that contradicted Lysenko.
[52]
Over 3,000 biologists were imprisoned, fired
[53]
or executed for attempting to oppose Lysenkoism and genetic research was effectively destroyed until the death of Stalin in 1953.
[54]
[55]
Due to the ideological influence of
Lysenkoism
, crop yields in the USSR declined.
[56]
[57]
[54]
Orthodoxy was enforced in the
cultural sphere
. Prior to Stalin's rule, literary, religious and national representatives had some level of autonomy in the 1920s but these groups were later rigorously repressed during the Stalinist era.
[58]
Socialist realism
was imposed in artistic production and other creative industries such as
music
,
film
along with
sports
were subject to extreme levels of political control.
[59]
Cinematic productions served to foster the cult of personality around Stalin with adherents to the party line receiving
Stalin prizes
.
[60]
Although, film directors and their assistants were still liable to mass arrests during the Great Terror.
[61]
Censorship of films contributed to a
mythologizing
of history as seen with the films
First Cavalry Army
(1941) and
Defence of Tsaritsyn
(1942) in which Stalin was glorified as a central figure to the
October Revolution
. Conversely, the roles of other Soviet figures such as Lenin and Trotsky were diminished or misrepresented.
[62]
Cult of personality
In the aftermath of the succession struggle, in which Stalin had defeated both
Left
and
Right Opposition
, a cult of Stalin had materialised.
[63]
From 1929 until 1953, there was a proliferation of
architecture
,
statues
,
posters
,
banners
and
iconography
featuring Stalin in which he was increasingly identified with the state and seen as an emblem of Marxism.
[64]
In July 1930, a state decree instructed 200 artists to prepare propaganda posters for the Five Year Plans and collectivsation measures.
[65]
Historian Anita Pisch drew specific focus to the various manifestations of the personality cult in which Stalin was associated with the "Father", "Saviour" and "Warrior" cultural archetypes with the latter imagery having gained ascendency during the
Great Patrotic War
and
Cold War
.
[64]
Some scholars have argued that Stalin took an active involvement with the construction of the cult of personality
[66]
with writers such as
Isaac Deutscher
and Erik van Ree noting that Stalin had absorbed elements from the cult of Tsars, Orthodox Christianity and highlighting specific acts such as
Lenin's embalming
.
[67]
Yet, other scholars have drawn on primary accounts from Stalin's associates such as
Molotov
which suggested he took a more critical and ambivalent attitude towards his cult of personality.
[68]
The cult of personality served to legitimate Stalin's authority, establish continuity with Lenin as his "discipline, student and mentee" in the view of his wider followers.
[64]
[69]
His successor,
Nikita Khrushchev
, would later denounce the cult of personality around Stalin as contradictory to Leninist principles and party discourse.
[70]
Class-based violence
Stalin blamed the
kulaks
for inciting
reactionary
violence against the people during the implementation of
agricultural collectivization
.
[71]
In response, the state, under Stalin's leadership, initiated a violent campaign against them. This kind of campaign was later known as
classicide
,
[72]
though several international legislatures have passed resolutions declaring the campaign a genocide.
[73]
Some historians dispute that these social-class actions constitute genocide.
[74]
[75]
[76]
Purges and executions
Main articles:
Great Purge
,
Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"
,
Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization
,
Sandarmokh
,
1937 mass execution of Belarusians
,
Vinnytsia massacre
,
1941 Red Army Purge
,
Leningrad case
,
Polish Operation of the NKVD
,
Katyn massacre
,
Case of the Union of Liberation of Belarus
,
NKVD prisoner massacres
,
Estonian Operation of the NKVD
,
Metro-Vickers Affair
,
Latvian Operation of the NKVD
,
Stalin's shooting lists
, and
Finnish Operation of the NKVD
As head of the
Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
, Stalin consolidated nearly absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel "opportunists" and "counter-revolutionary infiltrators".
[77]
Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party; more severe measures ranged from banishment to the
Gulag labor camps
to execution after trials held by
NKVD troikas
.
[77]
[79]
[80]
In the 1930s, Stalin became increasingly worried about Leningrad party head
Sergei Kirov
's growing popularity. At the
1934 Party Congress
, where the vote for the new Central Committee was held, Kirov received only three negative votes (the fewest of any candidate), while Stalin received over 100.
[i]
After Kirov's assassination, which Stalin may have orchestrated, Stalin invented a detailed scheme to implicate opposition leaders in the murder, including Trotsky,
Lev Kamenev
, and
Grigory Zinoviev
.
Thereafter, the investigations and trials expanded.
Stalin passed a new law on "terrorist organizations and terrorist acts" that were to be investigated for no more than ten days, with no prosecution, defense attorneys, or appeals, followed by a sentence to be imposed "quickly."
Stalin's Politburo also issued directives on quotas for mass arrests and executions.
[85]
After that, several trials, known as the
Moscow Trials
, were held, but the procedures were replicated throughout the country.
Article 58
of the legal code, which listed prohibited
anti-Soviet activities
as a counter-revolutionary crime, was applied most broadly.
Many alleged anti-Soviet pretexts were used to brand individuals as "enemies of the people", starting the cycle of public persecution, often proceeding to interrogation, torture, and deportation, if not death. The Russian word
troika
thereby gained a new meaning: a quick, simplified trial by a committee of three subordinated to the NKVD troika?with sentencing carried out within 24 hours.
Stalin's hand-picked
executioner
Vasili Blokhin
was entrusted with carrying out some of the high-profile executions in this period.
[87]
Many military leaders were convicted of treason, and a large-scale purge of
Red Army
officers followed.
[ii]
The repression of many formerly high-ranking revolutionaries and party members led Trotsky to claim that a "river of blood" separated Stalin's regime from Lenin's.
[89]
In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, where he had lived in exile since January 1937. This eliminated the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.
Except for
Vladimir Milyutin
(who died in prison in 1937) and Stalin himself, all of the members of
Lenin's original cabinet
who had not died of natural causes before the purge were executed.
[
citation needed
]
Mass operations of the NKVD
also targeted "national contingents" (foreign ethnicities) such as
Poles
,
ethnic Germans
, and
Koreans
. A total of 350,000 (144,000 of them Poles) were arrested and 247,157 (110,000 Poles) were executed.
[
page needed
]
Many Americans who had emigrated to the Soviet Union during the worst of the
Great Depression
were executed, while others were sent to prison camps or gulags.
[92]
[93]
Concurrent with the purges, efforts were made to rewrite the history in Soviet textbooks and other propaganda materials. Notable people executed by
NKVD
were removed from the texts and photographs as though they had never existed. Gradually, the history of the revolution was transformed into a story about just two men, Lenin and Stalin.
[
citation needed
]
In light of revelations from Soviet archives, historians now estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed in the course of the terror,
[94]
the great mass of them ordinary Soviet citizens: workers, peasants, homemakers, teachers, priests, musicians, soldiers, pensioners, ballerinas, and beggars.
[95]
[96]
: 4
Many of the executed were interred in
mass graves
, with some significant killing and burial sites being
Bykivnia
,
Kurapaty
, and
Butovo
.
[97]
Some Western experts believe the evidence released from the Soviet archives is understated, incomplete or unreliable.
[98]
[99]
[100]
[102]
Conversely, historian
Stephen G. Wheatcroft
, who spent much of his career researching the archives, contends that, before the collapse of the Soviet Union and the opening of the archives for historical research, "our understanding of the scale and the nature of Soviet repression has been extremely poor" and that some specialists who wish to maintain earlier high estimates of the Stalinist death toll are "finding it difficult to adapt to the new circumstances when the archives are open and when there are plenty of irrefutable data" and instead "hang on to their old
Sovietological
methods with round-about calculations based on odd statements from emigres and other informants who are supposed to have superior knowledge."
[103]
[104]
Stalin personally signed 357
proscription
lists in 1937 and 1938 that condemned 40,000 people to execution, about 90% of whom are confirmed to have been shot.
[105]
While reviewing one such list, he reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years? No one. Who remembers the names now of the
boyars
Ivan the Terrible
got rid of? No one."
[106]
In addition, Stalin dispatched a contingent of NKVD operatives to
Mongolia
, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD
troika
, and unleashed a
bloody purge
in which tens of thousands were executed as "Japanese spies", as Mongolian ruler
Khorloogiin Choibalsan
closely followed Stalin's lead.
[96]
: 2
Under Stalinist influence in the
Mongolian People's Republic
, an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show.
[107]
During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviet leadership sent NKVD squads into other countries to murder defectors and opponents of the Soviet regime. Victims of such plots included Trotsky,
Yevhen Konovalets
,
Ignace Poretsky
, Rudolf Klement,
Alexander Kutepov
,
Evgeny Miller
, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (
POUM
) leadership in Catalonia (e.g.,
Andreu Nin Perez
).
[108]
Deportations
Shortly before, during, and immediately after
World War II
, Stalin conducted a series of
deportations
that profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union.
Separatism
, resistance to Soviet rule, and collaboration with the
invading Germans
were the official reasons for the deportations. Individual circumstances of those spending time in
German-occupied territories
were not examined. After the brief
Nazi occupation of the Caucasus
, the entire population of five of the small highland peoples and the
Crimean Tatars
?more than a million people in total?were deported without notice or any opportunity to take their possessions.
As a result of Stalin's lack of trust in the loyalty of particular ethnicities, groups such as the
Soviet Koreans
,
Volga Germans
, Crimean Tatars,
Chechens
, and many Poles, were forcibly moved out of strategic areas and relocated to places in the central Soviet Union, especially
Kazakhstan
. By some estimates, hundreds of thousands of deportees may have died en route.
It is estimated that between 1941 and 1949, nearly 3.3 million people
[111]
were deported to
Siberia
and the Central Asian republics. By some estimates, up to 43% of the resettled population died of diseases and malnutrition.
[112]
According to official Soviet estimates, more than 14 million people passed through the gulags from 1929 to 1953, with a further 7 to 8 million deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union (including entire nationalities in several cases).
[113]
The emergent scholarly consensus is that from 1930 to 1953, around 1.5 to 1.7 million perished in the gulag system.
[114]
[115]
[116]
In February 1956,
Nikita Khrushchev
condemned the deportations as a violation of Leninism and reversed most of them, although it was not until 1991 that the Tatars,
Meskhetians
, and Volga Germans were allowed to return
en masse
to their homelands. The deportations had a profound effect on the Soviet people. The memory of the deportations has played a significant part in the separatist movements in the Baltic states,
Tatarstan
, and
Chechnya
, even today.
[
citation needed
]
Economic policy
At the start of the 1930s, Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies that completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This became known as the
Great Turn
as Russia turned away from the
mixed-economic
type
New Economic Policy
(NEP) and adopted a
planned economy
. Lenin implemented the NEP to ensure the survival of the
socialist state
following seven years of war (
World War I
, 1914?1917, and the subsequent
Civil War
, 1917?1921) and rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels. But Russia still lagged far behind the West, and Stalin and the majority of the Communist Party felt the NEP not only to be compromising communist ideals but also not delivering satisfactory economic performance or creating the envisaged socialist society. It was felt necessary to increase the pace of industrialization in order to catch up with the West.
[
citation needed
]
According to historian
Sheila Fitzpatrick
, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the
Left Opposition
on such matters as
industrialisation
and
collectivisation
.
[117]
Fredric Jameson
has said that "Stalinism was…a success and fulfilled its historic mission, socially as well as economically" given that it "modernized the Soviet Union, transforming a peasant society into an industrial state with a literate population and a remarkable scientific superstructure."
[118]
Robert Conquest
disputes that conclusion, writing, "Russia had already been fourth to fifth among industrial economies before World War I", and that Russian industrial advances could have been achieved without collectivization, famine, or terror. According to Conquest, the industrial successes were far less than claimed, and the Soviet-style industrialization was "an anti-innovative dead-end."
[119]
Stephen Kotkin
said those who argue collectivization was necessary are "dead wrong", writing that it "only seemed necessary within the straitjacket of Communist ideology and its repudiation of capitalism. And economically, collectivization failed to deliver." Kotkin further claimed that it decreased harvests instead of increasing them, as peasants tended to resist heavy taxes by producing fewer goods, caring only about their own subsistence.
[121]
: 5
According to several Western historians,
[122]
Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in the
Soviet famine of 1930?1933
; some scholars believe that
Holodomor
, which started near the end of 1932, was when the famine turned into an instrument of genocide; the Ukrainian government now recognizes it as such. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine.
[123]
[124]
Social issues
The Stalinist era was largely regressive on social issues. Despite a brief period of decriminalization under Lenin, the 1934 Criminal Code re-criminalized homosexuality.
[125]
Abortion was made illegal again in 1936
[126]
after controversial debate among citizens,
[127]
and women's issues were largely ignored.
[128]
Relationship to Leninism
Stalin considered the political and economic system under his rule to be
Marxism?Leninism
, which he considered the only legitimate successor of
Marxism
and
Leninism
. The
historiography
of Stalin is diverse, with many different aspects of continuity and discontinuity between the regimes Stalin and Lenin proposed. Some historians, such as
Richard Pipes
, consider Stalinism the natural consequence of Leninism: Stalin "faithfully implemented Lenin's domestic and foreign policy programs."
[129]
Robert Service
writes that "institutionally and ideologically Lenin laid the foundations for a Stalin [...] but the passage from Leninism to the worse terrors of Stalinism was not smooth and inevitable."
[130]
Likewise, historian and Stalin biographer
Edvard Radzinsky
believes that Stalin was a genuine follower of Lenin, exactly as he claimed.
[131]
Another Stalin biographer,
Stephen Kotkin
, wrote that "his violence was not the product of his subconscious but of the Bolshevik engagement with Marxist?Leninist ideology."
[132]
Dmitri Volkogonov
, who wrote biographies of both Lenin and Stalin, wrote that during the 1960s through 1980s, an official patriotic Soviet
de-Stalinized
view of the Lenin?Stalin relationship (i.e. during the
Khrushchev Thaw
and later) was that the overly
autocratic
Stalin had distorted the Leninism of the wise
dedushka
Lenin. But Volkogonov also lamented that this view eventually dissolved for those like him who had the scales fall from their eyes immediately before and after the
dissolution of the Soviet Union
. After researching the biographies in the Soviet archives, he came to the same conclusion as Radzinsky and Kotkin, i.e. that Lenin had built a culture of violent autocratic totalitarianism of which Stalinism was a logical extension. He lamented that, while Stalin had long since fallen in the estimation of many Soviet minds (the many who agreed with de-Stalinization), "Lenin was the last bastion" in Volkogonov's mind to fall, and the fall was the most painful, given the secular
apotheosis
of Lenin that all Soviet children grew up with.
[
citation needed
]
Proponents of
continuity
cite a variety of contributory factors, such as that Lenin, not Stalin, introduced the
Red Terror
with its hostage-taking and
internment camps
, and that Lenin developed the infamous
Article 58
and established the autocratic system in the
Communist Party
.
[133]
They also note that Lenin put a
ban on factions within the Russian Communist Party
and introduced the
one-party state
in 1921?a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death and cite
Felix Dzerzhinsky
, who, during the
Bolshevik
struggle against opponents in the
Russian Civil War
, exclaimed: "We stand for organized terror?this should be frankly stated."
[134]
Opponents of this view include
revisionist historians
and many
post-Cold War
and otherwise
dissident Soviet
historians, including
Roy Medvedev
, who argues that although "one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin…in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenin's clear instructions, but in defiance of them."
[135]
In doing so, some historians have tried to distance Stalinism from Leninism to undermine the totalitarian view that Stalin's methods were inherent in communism from the start.
[136]
Other revisionist historians such as
Orlando Figes
, while critical of the Soviet era, acknowledge that Lenin actively sought to counter Stalin's growing influence, allying with Trotsky in 1922?23, opposing Stalin on
foreign trade
, and proposing party reforms including the democratization of the
Central Committee
and recruitment of 50-100 ordinary workers into the party's lower organs.
[137]
Critics include anti-Stalinist communists such as Trotsky, who pointed out that Lenin attempted to persuade the Communist Party to remove Stalin from his post as its
General Secretary
.Trotsky also argued that he and Lenin had intended to lift the ban on the
opposition parties
such as the
Mensheviks
and
Socialist Revolutionaries
as soon as the economic and social conditions of
Soviet Russia
had improved.
[138]
Lenin's Testament
, the document containing this order, was suppressed after Lenin's death. Various historians have cited Lenin's proposal to appoint Trotsky as a
Vice-chairman of the Soviet Union
as evidence that he intended Trotsky to be his successor as head of government.
[139]
[140]
[141]
[142]
[143]
In his biography of Trotsky, British historian
Isaac Deutscher
writes that, faced with the evidence, "only the blind and the deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism."
[144]
Similarly, historian
Moshe Lewin
writes, "The Soviet regime underwent a long period of 'Stalinism,' which in its basic features was diametrically opposed to the recommendations of [Lenin's] testament".
[145]
French historian
Pierre Broue
disputes the historical assessments of the early Soviet Union by modern historians such as Dmitri Volkogonov, which Broue argues falsely equate
Leninism
, Stalinism and
Trotskyism
to present the notion of ideological continuity and reinforce the position of
counter-communism
.
[146]
Some scholars have attributed the establishment of the one-party system in the Soviet Union to the wartime conditions imposed on Lenin's government;
[147]
others have highlighted the initial attempts to form a coalition government with the
Left Socialist Revolutionaries
.
[148]
According to historian
Marcel Liebman
, Lenin's wartime measures such as banning opposition parties was prompted by the fact that several political parties either
took up arms
against the new
Soviet government
, participated in sabotage,
collaborated
with the deposed
Tsarists
, or made
assassination attempts against Lenin
and other Bolshevik leaders.
[149]
Liebman also argues that the banning of parties under Lenin did not have the same repressive character as later bans enforced by Stalin's regime.
[149]
Several scholars have highlighted the socially progressive nature of Lenin's policies, such as
universal education
,
healthcare
, and
equal rights for women
.
[150]
[151]
Conversely, Stalin's regime reversed Lenin's policies on social matters such as
sexual equality
, legal restrictions on
marriage
, rights of sexual minorities, and
protective legislation
.
[152]
Historian
Robert Vincent Daniels
also views the Stalinist period as a counterrevolution in Soviet cultural life that revived
patriotic propaganda
, the Tsarist programme of
Russification
and traditional,
military ranks
that Lenin had criticized as expressions of "Great Russian chauvinism".
[153]
Daniels also regards Stalinism as an abrupt break with the Leninist period in terms of economic policies in which a deliberated, scientific system of
economic planning
that featured former
Menshevik
economists
at
Gosplan
was replaced by a hasty version of planning with unrealistic targets, bureaucractic waste,
bottlenecks
and
shortages
.
[154]
In his "
Secret Speech
", delivered in 1956,
Nikita Khrushchev
, Stalin's successor, argued that Stalin's regime differed profusely from the leadership of Lenin. He was critical of the
cult of the individual
constructed around Stalin whereas Lenin stressed "the role of the people as the creator of history".
[155]
He also emphasized that Lenin favored a
collective leadership
that relied on personal persuasion and recommended Stalin's removal as General Secretary. Khrushchev contrasted this with Stalin's "despotism", which required absolute submission to his position, and highlighted that many of the people later annihilated as "enemies of the party ... had worked with Lenin during his life".
[155]
He also contrasted the "severe methods" Lenin used in the "most necessary cases" as a "struggle for survival" during the Civil War with the extreme methods and mass repressions Stalin used even when the revolution was "already victorious".
[155]
In his memoirs, Khrushchev argued that his widespread purges of the "most advanced nucleus of people" among the
Old Bolsheviks
and leading figures in the
military
and
scientific
fields had "undoubtedly" weakened the nation.
[156]
According to Stalin's secretary,
Boris Bazhanov
, Stalin was jubilant over Lenin's death while "publicly putting on the mask of grief".
[157]
Some Marxist theoreticians have disputed the view that Stalin's dictatorship was a natural outgrowth of the Bolsheviks' actions, as Stalin eliminated most of the original central committee members from 1917.
[158]
George Novack
stressed the Bolsheviks' initial efforts to form a government with the
Left Socialist Revolutionaries
and bring other parties such as the Mensheviks into political legality.
[159]
Tony Cliff
argued the Bolshevik-Left Socialist Revolutionary coalition government dissolved the Constituent Assembly for several reasons. They cited the outdated voter rolls, which did not acknowledge the split among the Socialist Revolutionary party, and the assembly's conflict with the
Congress of the Soviets
as an alternative democratic structure.
[160]
A similar analysis is present in more recent works, such as those of Graeme Gill, who argues that Stalinism was "not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; [it formed a] sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors."
But Gill adds that "difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself. The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism."
Revisionist historians such as
Sheila Fitzpatrick
have criticized the focus on the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts such as
totalitarianism
, which have obscured the reality of the system.
[163]
Russian historian
Vadim Rogovin
writes, "Under Lenin, the freedom to express a real variety of opinions existed in the party, and in carrying out political decisions, consideration was given to the positions of not only the majority, but a minority in the party". He compared this practice with subsequent leadership blocs, which violated party tradition, ignored opponents' proposals, and expelled the
Opposition
from the party on falsified charges, culminating in the
Moscow Trials
of 1936?1938. According to Rogovin, 80-90% of the members of the Central Committee elected at the
Sixth
through the
Seventeenth Congresses
were killed.
[164]
The Right and Left Opposition have been held by some scholars as representing political alternatives to Stalinism despite their shared beliefs in Leninism due to their policy platforms which were at variance with Stalin. This ranged from areas related to
economics
,
foreign policy
and
cultural
matters.
[165]
[166]
Legacy
In Western
historiography
, Stalin is considered one of the worst and most notorious figures in modern history.
[167]
[168]
[169]
[170]
Biographer and historian
Isaac Deutscher
highlighted the
totalitarian
character of Stalinism and its suppression of "
socialist
inspiration".
[3]
Several scholars have derided Stalinism for fostering
anti-intellectual
,
antisemitic
and
chauvinistic
attitudes within the Soviet Union.
[171]
[172]
[173]
Pierre du Bois argues that the cult of personality around Stalin was elaborately constructed to legitimize his rule. Many deliberate distortions and falsehoods were used.
[174]
The Kremlin refused access to archival records that might reveal the truth, and critical documents were destroyed. Photographs were altered and documents were invented.
[175]
People who knew Stalin were forced to provide "official" accounts to meet the ideological demands of the cult, especially as Stalin presented it in 1938 in
Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
, which became the official history.
[176]
Historian
David L. Hoffmann
sums up the consensus of scholars: "The Stalin cult was a central element of Stalinism, and as such, it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule. [...] Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin's power or as evidence of Stalin's megalomania."
[177]
But after Stalin died in 1953, Khrushchev repudiated his policies and condemned his
cult of personality
in his
Secret Speech
to the
Twentieth Party Congress
in 1956, instituting
de-Stalinization
and relative
liberalization
, within the same political framework. Consequently, the world's communist parties that previously adhered to Stalinism, except the
German Democratic Republic
and the
Socialist Republic of Romania
, abandoned it and, to a greater or lesser degree, adopted Khrushchev's positions. The
Chinese Communist Party
chose to split from the Soviet Union, resulting in the
Sino-Soviet split
. Some have described Khrushchev's ouster in 1964 by his former
party-state
allies as a Stalinist restoration, epitomized by the
Brezhnev Doctrine
and the
apparatchik
/
nomenklatura
"stability of cadres", lasting until the period of
glasnost
and
perestroika
in the late 1980s and the
fall of the Soviet Union
.
[
citation needed
]
Maoism and Hoxhaism
Mao Zedong
famously declared that Stalin was 70% good and 30% bad.
Maoists
criticized Stalin chiefly for his view that bourgeois influence within the Soviet Union was primarily a result of external forces, to the almost complete exclusion of internal forces, and his view that class contradictions ended after the basic construction of socialism. Mao also criticized Stalin's cult of personality and the excesses of the great purge. But Maoists praised Stalin for leading the Soviet Union and the international proletariat, defeating fascism in Germany, and his
anti-revisionism
.
[178]
Taking the side of the
Chinese Communist Party
in the
Sino-Soviet split
, the
People's Socialist Republic of Albania
remained committed, at least theoretically, to its brand of Stalinism (
Hoxhaism
) for decades under the leadership of
Enver Hoxha
. Despite their initial cooperation against "
revisionism
", Hoxha denounced Mao as a revisionist, along with almost every other self-identified communist organization worldwide, resulting in the
Sino-Albanian split
. This effectively isolated Albania from the rest of the world, as Hoxha was hostile to both the pro-American and pro-Soviet spheres of influence and the Non-Aligned Movement under the leadership of
Josip Broz Tito
, whom Hoxha had also previously denounced.
[179]
[180]
Trotskyism
Leon Trotsky
always viewed Stalin as the "candidate for grave-digger of our party and the revolution" during the succession struggle.
[181]
American historian
Robert Vincent Daniels
viewed Trotsky and the Left Opposition as a critical alternative to the Stalin-Bukharin majority in a number of areas. Daniels stated that the Left Opposition would have prioritised industrialisation but never contemplated the "
violent uprooting
" employed by Stalin and contrasted most directly with Stalinism on the issue of
party democratization and bureaucratization
.
[182]
Trotsky also opposed the policy of forced collectivisation under Stalin and favoured a
voluntary
, gradual approach towards
agricultural production
[183]
[184]
with greater tolerance for the rights of Soviet Ukrainians.
[185]
[186]
Trotskyists
argue that the
Stalinist Soviet Union
was neither
socialist
nor
communist
but a
bureaucratized
degenerated workers' state
?that is, a non-capitalist state in which exploitation is controlled by a ruling
caste
that, although not owning the
means of production
and not constituting a
social class
in its own right, accrues benefits and privileges at the working class's expense. Trotsky believed that the
Bolshevik Revolution
must be spread all over the globe's working class, the
proletarians
, for world revolution. But after the failure of the revolution in Germany, Stalin reasoned that industrializing and consolidating Bolshevism in Russia would best serve the proletariat in the long run. The dispute did not end until Trotsky was murdered in his Mexican villa in 1940 by Stalinist assassin
Ramon Mercader
.
[187]
Max Shachtman
, a principal Trotskyist theorist in the U.S., argued that the Soviet Union had evolved from a degenerated worker's state to a new
mode of production
called
bureaucratic collectivism
, whereby
orthodox Trotskyists
considered the Soviet Union an ally gone astray. Shachtman and his followers thus argued for the formation of a
Third Camp
opposed to the
Soviet
and
capitalist
blocs equally. By the mid-20th century, Shachtman and many of his associates, such as
Social Democrats, USA
, identified as
social democrats
rather than Trotskyists, while some ultimately abandoned socialism altogether and embraced
neoconservatism
. In the U.K.,
Tony Cliff
independently developed a critique of
state capitalism
that resembled Shachtman's in some respects but retained a commitment to
revolutionary communism
.
[188]
Similarly, American Trotskyist
David North
drew attention to the fact that the generation of bureaucrats that rose to power under Stalin's tutelage presided over the Soviet Union's
stagnation
and
breakdown
.
[189]
At a time when hundreds of thousands and millions of workers, especially in Germany, are departing from Communism, in part to fascism and in the main into the camp of indifferentism, thousands and tens of thousands of Social Democratic workers, under the impact of the self-same defeat, are evolving into the left, to the side of Communism. There cannot, however, even be talk of their accepting the hopelessly discredited Stalinist leadership.
?Trotsky's writings on Stalinism and fascism in 1933
[190]
Trotskyist historian
Vadim Rogovin
believed Stalinism had "discredited the idea of socialism in the eyes of millions of people throughout the world". Rogovin also argued that the
Left Opposition
, led by Trotsky, was a political movement that "offered a real alternative to Stalinism, and that to crush this movement was the primary function of the Stalinist terror".
[191]
According to Rogovin, Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective, countries. He cited 600 active
Bulgarian
communists who perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists whom Stalin handed over to the
Gestapo
after the signing of the
German-Soviet pact
. Rogovin further noted that 16 members of the
Central Committee
of the
German Communist Party
became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the
Hungarian
,
Yugoslav
and other
Polish Communist
parties.
[192]
British historian Terence Brotherstone argued that the Stalin era had a profound effect on those attracted to Trotsky's ideas. Brotherstone described figures who emerged from the
Stalinist
parties as miseducated, which he said helped to block the development of Marxism.
[193]
Other interpretations
Some historians and writers, such as
Dietrich Schwanitz
,
[194]
draw parallels between Stalinism and the economic policy of
Tsar
Peter the Great
; Schwanitz in particular views Stalin as "a monstrous reincarnation" of him. Both men wanted Russia to leave the western European states far behind in terms of development. Both largely succeeded, turning Russia into Europe's leading power.
[
citation needed
]
Others
[
who?
]
compare Stalin to
Ivan the Terrible
because of his policies of
oprichnina
and the restriction of common people's liberties.
[
citation needed
]
Some reviewers have considered Stalinism a form of "
red fascism
".
[195]
Fascist
regimes ideologically opposed the Soviet Union, but some regarded Stalinism favorably for evolving
Bolshevism
into a form of fascism.
Benito Mussolini
saw Stalinism as having transformed Soviet Bolshevism into a
Slavic
fascism.
[196]
British historian
Michael Ellman
writes that mass deaths from famines are not a "uniquely Stalinist evil", noting that famines and droughts have been a
common occurrence
in
Russian history
, including the
Russian famine of 1921?22
, which occurred before Stalin came to power. He also notes that famines were widespread worldwide in the 19th and 20th centuries in countries such as India, Ireland, Russia and China. Ellman compares the Stalinist regime's behavior vis-a-vis the
Holodomor
to that of the
British government
(toward
Ireland
and
India
) and the
G8
in contemporary times, arguing that the G8 "are guilty of mass manslaughter or mass deaths from criminal negligence because of their not taking obvious measures to reduce mass deaths" and that Stalin's "behaviour was no worse than that of many rulers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries".
[197]
David L. Hoffmann
questions whether Stalinist practices of state violence derive from socialist ideology. Placing Stalinism in an international context, he argues that many forms of state interventionism the Stalinist government used, including social cataloguing, surveillance and concentration camps, predate the Soviet regime and originated outside of Russia. He further argues that technologies of social intervention developed in conjunction with the work of 19th-century European reformers and greatly expanded during World War I, when state actors in all the combatant countries dramatically increased efforts to mobilize and control their populations. According to Hoffman, the Soviet state was born at this moment of total war and institutionalized state intervention practices as permanent features.
[198]
In
The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America
, anti-communist and Soviet dissident
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
argues that the use of the term
Stalinism
hides the inevitable effects of communism as a whole on human liberty. He writes that the concept of Stalinism was developed after 1956 by Western intellectuals to keep the communist ideal alive. But "Stalinism" was used as early as 1937, when Trotsky wrote his pamphlet
Stalinism and Bolshevism
.
[199]
In two
Guardian
articles in 2002 and 2006, British journalist
Seumas Milne
wrote that the impact of the
post-Cold War
narrative that Stalin and Hitler were twin evils, equating communism's evils with those of
Nazism
, "has been to relativize the unique crimes of Nazism, bury those of colonialism and feed the idea that any attempt at radical social change will always lead to suffering, killing and failure."
[200]
[201]
According to historian
Eric D. Weitz
, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union had been liquidated during the Stalinist terror and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, most of them Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo by Stalin's administration.
[202]
Public opinion
In modern Russia, public opinion of Stalin and the former Soviet Union has
improved in recent years
.
[203]
Levada Center has found that favorability of the Stalinist era has increased from 18% in 1996 to 40% in 2016 which has coincided with his rehabilitation by the Putin government for the purpose of social
patriotism
and
militarisation
efforts.
[204]
According to a 2015
Levada Center
poll, 34% of respondents (up from 28% in 2007) say that leading the Soviet people to victory in
World War II
was such an outstanding achievement that it outweighed Stalin's mistakes.
[205]
A 2019 Levada Center poll showed that support for Stalin, whom many Russians saw as the victor in the
Great Patriotic War
,
[206]
reached a record high in the
post-Soviet era
, with 51% regarding him as a positive figure and 70% saying his reign was good for the country.
[207]
Lev Gudkov
, a sociologist at the
Levada Center
, said, "Vladimir Putin's Russia of 2012 needs symbols of authority and national strength, however controversial they may be, to validate the newly authoritarian political order. Stalin, a despotic leader responsible for mass bloodshed but also still identified with wartime victory and national unity, fits this need for symbols that reinforce the current political ideology."
[208]
Some positive sentiments can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union. A 2012 survey commissioned by the
Carnegie Endowment
found 38% of
Armenians
concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin".
[208]
[209]
A 2013 survey by
Tbilisi University
found 45% of
Georgians
expressing "a positive attitude" toward Stalin.
[210]
See also
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Scholars also disagree over what role the Soviet Union played in the tragedy. Some scholars point to Stalin as the mastermind behind the famine, due to his hatred of Ukrainians (Hosking, 1987). Others assert that Stalin did not actively cause the famine, but he knew about it and did nothing to stop it (Moore, 2012). Still other scholars argue that the famine was just an effect of the Soviet Union's push for rapid industrialization and a by-product of that was the destruction of the peasant way of life (Fischer, 1935). The final school of thought argues that the Holodomor was caused by factors beyond the control of the Soviet Union and Stalin took measures to reduce the effects of the famine on the Ukrainian people (Davies & Wheatcroft, 2006).
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... vast sums were spent on importing foreign technical 'ideas' and on securing the services of alien experts. Foreign countries, again ? American and Germany in particular ? lent the U.S.S.R. active aid in drafting the plans for all the undertakings to be constructed. They supplied the Soviet Union with tens of thousands of engineers, mechanics, and supervisors. During the first Five-Year Plan, not a single plant was erected, nor was a new industry launched without the direct help of foreigners working on the spot. Without the importation of Western European and American objects, ideas, and men, the 'miracle in the East' would not have been realized, or, at least, not in so short a time.
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Faria, MA (January 8, 2012).
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- ^
Cliff, Tony (1948).
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Schwanitz, Dietrich.
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industrial slaves
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.
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. June 29, 2017
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- ^
Kolesnikov, Andrei.
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.
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Arkhipov, Ilya (April 16, 2019).
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a
b
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Poll Finds Stalin's Popularity High
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The Stalin Puzzle: Deciphering Post-Soviet Public Opinion
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.
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Archived
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. Retrieved
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2018
.
Notes
- ^
An exact number of negative votes is unknown. In his memoirs,
Anastas Mikoyan
writes that out of 1,225 delegates, around 270 voted against Stalin and that the official number of negative votes was given as three, with the rest of ballots destroyed. Following
Nikita Khrushchev
's "
Secret Speech
" in 1956, a commission of the central committee investigated the votes and found that 267 ballots were missing.
- ^
The scale of Stalin's purge of
Red Army
officers was exceptional?90% of all generals and 80% of all colonels were killed. This included three out of five Marshals; 13 out of 15 Army commanders; 57 of 85 Corps commanders; 110 of 195 divisional commanders; and 220 of 406 brigade commanders, as well as all commanders of military districts.
[
citation needed
]
Carell, P. [1964] 1974.
Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of the German Defeat in the East
(first Indian ed.), translated by
E. Osers
. Delhi: B.I. Publications. p. 195.
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.
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.
Further reading
Books
- Bullock, Alan
. 1998.
Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives
(2nd ed.). Fontana Press.
- Campeanu, Pavel. 2016.
Origins of Stalinism: From Leninist Revolution to Stalinist Society
. Routledge.
- Conquest, Robert
. 2008.
The Great Terror: A Reassessment
(40th anniversary ed.). Oxford University Press.
- Deutscher, Isaac
. 1967.
Stalin: A Political Biography
(2nd edition). Oxford House.
- Dobrenko, Evgeny. 2020.
Late Stalinism
(Yale University Press, 2020).
- Edele, Mark, ed. 2020.
Debates on Stalinism: An introduction
(Manchester University Press, 2020).
- Figes, Orlando
. 2008.
The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia
. Picador.
- Groys, Boris. 2014.
The total art of Stalinism: Avant-Garde, aesthetic dictatorship, and beyond
. Verso Books.
- Hasselmann, Anne E. 2021. "Memory Makers of the Great Patriotic War: Curator Agency and Visitor Participation in Soviet War Museums during Stalinism."
Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society
13.1 (2021): 13?32.
- Hoffmann, David L.
2008.
Stalinism: The Essential Readings
. John Wiley & Sons.
- Hoffmann, David L. 2018.
The Stalinist Era
. Cambridge University Press.
- Kotkin, Stephen
. 1997.
Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a civilization
. University of California Press.
- McCauley, Martin. 2019
Stalin and Stalinism
(Routledge, 2019).
- Ree, Erik Van. 2002.
The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, A Study in Twentieth-century Revolutionary Patriotism
. RoutledgeCurzon.
- Ryan, James, and Susan Grant, eds. 2020.
Revisioning Stalin and Stalinism: Complexities, Contradictions, and Controversies
(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020).
- Sharlet, Robert. 2017.
Stalinism and Soviet legal culture
(Routledge, 2017).
- Tism?neanu, Vladimir
. 2003.
Stalinism for All Seasons: A Political History of Romanian Communism
.
University of California Press
.
- Tucker, Robert C.
, ed. 2017.
Stalinism: essays in historical interpretation.
Routledge.
- Valiakhmetov, Albert, et al. 2018. "History And Historians In The Era Of Stalinism: A Review Of Modern Russian Historiography."
National Academy of Managerial Staff of Culture and Arts Herald
1 (2018).
online
- Velikanova, Olga. 2018.
Mass Political Culture Under Stalinism: Popular Discussion of the Soviet Constitution of 1936
(Springer, 2018).
- Wood, Alan. 2004.
Stalin and Stalinism
(2nd ed.).
Routledge
.
Scholarly articles
- Alexander, Kuzminykh. 2019. "The internal affairs agencies of the Soviet State in the period of Stalinism in the context of Russian historiography."
Historia provinciae?the journal of regional history
3.1 (2019).
online
- Barnett, Vincent. 2006.
Understanding Stalinism: The 'Orwellian Discrepancy' and the 'Rational Choice Dictator'
.
Europe-Asia Studies
,
58
(3), 457?466.
- Edele, Mark. 2020. "New perspectives on Stalinism?: A conclusion." in
Debates on Stalinism
(Manchester University Press, 2020) pp. 270?281.
- Gill, Graeme. 2019. "Stalinism and Executive Power: Formal and Informal Contours of Stalinism."
Europe-Asia Studies
71.6 (2019): 994?1012.
- Kamp, Marianne, and Russell Zanca. 2017. "Recollections of collectivization in Uzbekistan: Stalinism and local activism."
Central Asian Survey
36.1 (2017): 55?72.
online
[
dead link
]
- Kuzio, Taras. 2017. "Stalinism and Russian and Ukrainian national identities."
Communist and Post-Communist Studies
50.4 (2017): 289?302.
- Lewin, Moshe. 2017. "The social background of Stalinism." in
Stalinism
(Routledge, 2017. 111?136).
- Mishler, Paul C. 2018. "Is the Term 'Stalinism' Valid and Useful for Marxist Analysis?."
Science & Society
82.4 (2018): 555?567.
- Musiał, Filip. 2019. "Stalinism in Poland."
The Person and the Challenges: Journal of Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by Pope John Paul II
9.2 (2019): 9?23.
online
- Nelson, Todd H. 2015. "History as ideology: The portrayal of Stalinism and the Great Patriotic War in contemporary Russian high school textbooks."
Post-Soviet Affairs
,
31
(1), 37?65.
- Nikiforov, S. A., et al. "Cultural revolution of Stalinism in its regional context."
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology
9.11 (2018): 1229?1241' impact on schooling
- Wheatcroft, Stephen G. "Soviet statistics under Stalinism: Reliability and distortions in grain and population statistics."
Europe-Asia Studies
71.6 (2019): 1013?1035.
- Winkler, Martina. 2017. "
Children, Childhood, and Stalinism
."
Kritika
18
(3), 628?637.
- Zawadzka, Anna. 2019. "Stalinism the Polish Way."
Studia Litteraria et Historica
8 (2019): 1?6.
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Studia Litteraria et Historica
8 (2019): 1?17.
online
Primary sources
External links
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Stalinism
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De-Stalinization
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Remembrance
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