17th-century Scottish Presbyterians
This article is about the supporters of the 1638 Scottish National Covenant. For the 1949 petition for Scottish home rule, see
Scottish Covenant
. For the British tank, see
Covenanter tank
.
Covenanters
[a]
were members of a 17th-century
Scottish
religious and political movement, who claimed to have a "
Covenant
", or agreement with
God
. They supported a
Church of Scotland
, or kirk, that was
Presbyterian
in structure, and the primacy of church leaders in religious affairs. It originated in disputes with
James VI
and his son
Charles I
over church organisation and
doctrine
, but expanded into political conflict over the limits of Royal authority.
In 1638, thousands of Scots signed the
National Covenant
, pledging to resist changes imposed by Charles on the kirk. The subsequent 1639 and 1640
Bishops' Wars
initiated the
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
, and resulted in the Covenanters taking control of the
Scottish government
. In response to the
Irish Rebellion of 1641
, Covenanter troops were sent to
Ireland
, and the 1643
Solemn League and Covenant
brought them into the
First English Civil War
on the side of
Parliament
against the
Royalists
.
As the war progressed, many Covenanters came to view English
religious Independents
like
Oliver Cromwell
as a greater threat than the Royalists, particularly their opposition to
state religion
. As a result, a Covenanter faction known as
Engagers
allied with Scots and English Royalists during the 1648
Second English Civil War
. A Scottish army invaded England, but were defeated, while Charles was executed in January 1649. The
Kirk Party
now gained political power, and in 1650,
agreed
to provide his son
Charles II
with Scottish military support to regain the English throne, then crowned him
King of Scots
in 1651. Defeat in the
Anglo-Scottish war (1650?1652)
led to Scotland being absorbed into the
Commonwealth of England
. The kirk lost its position as the
state church
, and the rulings of its
assemblies
were no longer enforced by law.
Following the 1660
Stuart Restoration
, the
Parliament of Scotland
passed laws reversing reforms enacted since 1639. Bishops were restored to the kirk, while
ministers
and other officeholders were obliged to take the
Oath of Abjuration
rejecting the 1638 Covenant. As a result, many Covenanters opposed the new regime, leading to a series of plots and armed rebellions. After the 1688
Glorious Revolution in Scotland
, the Church of Scotland was re-established as a wholly Presbyterian structure and most Covenanters readmitted. Dissident minorities persisted in Scotland, Ireland, and
North America
, which continue today as the
Reformed Presbyterian Global Alliance
.
Background
[
edit
]
The 16th century
Scottish Reformation
resulted in the creation of a reformed
Church of Scotland
, or "kirk",
Presbyterian
in structure, and
Calvinist
in doctrine. In December 1557, the kirk became the
state church
of Scotland, and in 1560, the
Parliament of Scotland
adopted the
Scots Confession
which rejected many
Catholic
teachings and practices.
The Confession was adopted by
James VI
, and re-affirmed first in 1590, then in 1596. However, James argued that as king, he was also head of the church, governing through
bishops
appointed by himself.
[b]
The kirk remained Calvinist in doctrine, and when James became king of England in 1603, he saw a unified Church as the first step in creating a centralised, unionist state.
Although both churches were nominally
episcopalian in structure
and Protestant in doctrine, even Scottish bishops rejected many
Church of England
practices as little better than Catholic.
Opposition to Catholicism remained widespread in Scotland, even though by 1630 it was largely confined to the aristocracy and remote, Gaelic-speaking areas of the
Highlands and Islands
.
Many Scots fought in the
Thirty Years' War
, one of the
most destructive religious conflicts in European history
, while there were close economic and cultural with the Protestant
Dutch Republic
, then
fighting for independence
from Catholic
Spain
. Lastly, the majority of kirk ministers had been educated in French Calvinist universities, most of which were suppressed in the
Huguenot rebellions
of the 1620s.
These links, combined with a general perception that Protestant Europe was under attack, meant heightened sensitivity around religious practice. In 1636, Charles I replaced the existing "
Book of Discipline
" used by the kirk with a new
Book of Canons
, and excommunicated anyone who denied Royal supremacy in church matters.
When followed by a revised "
Book of Common Prayer
" in 1637, it caused anger and widespread rioting, most famously sparked when
Jenny Geddes
threw a stool at the minister in
St Giles Cathedral
.
More recently, historians like
Mark Kishlansky
have argued her protest was part of a series of planned and co-ordinated acts of opposition to the
Book of Common Prayer
, whose origin was as much political as it was religious.
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
[
edit
]
Supervised by
Archibald Johnston
and
Alexander Henderson
, in February 1638 representatives from all sections of Scottish society agreed to a
National Covenant
, pledging resistance to liturgical "innovations". An important factor in the political contest with Charles was the Covenanter belief they were preserving an established and divinely ordained form of religion which he was seeking to alter.
Debate as to what that meant persisted until finally settled in 1690. For example, the Covenant made no reference to bishops;
Murdoch MacKenzie
,
Bishop of Orkney
from 1677 to 1688, viewed himself as a Covenanter and argued their expulsion interfered with that form. Nevertheless, when the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
met in
Glasgow
in December 1638, it abolished episcopacy and affirmed its right to meet annually.
Support was widespread except in
Aberdeenshire
and
Banff
, heartland of Royalist and Episcopalian resistance for the next 60 years.
The Marquess of Argyll
and six other members of the
Scottish Privy Council
had backed the Covenant;
Charles tried to impose his authority in the 1639 and 1640
Bishop's Wars
, with his defeat leaving the Covenanters in control of Scotland.
When the
First English Civil War
began in 1642, the Scots remained neutral at first but sent troops to
Ulster
to support their co-religionists in the
Irish Rebellion
; the bitterness of this conflict radicalised views in Scotland and Ireland.
Since Calvinists believed a "well-ordered" monarchy was part of God's plan, the Covenanters committed to "defend the king's person and authority with our goods, bodies, and lives". The idea of government without a king was inconceivable.
This view was generally shared by English
Parliamentarians
, who wanted to control Charles, not remove him, but both they and their
Royalist
opponents were further divided over religious
doctrine
. In Scotland, near unanimous agreement on doctrine meant differences centred on who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs. Royalists tended to be "traditionalist" in religion and politics but there were various factors, including nationalist allegiance to the Kirk. Individual motives were very complex, and many fought on both sides, including
Montrose
, a Covenanter general in 1639 and 1640 who nearly
restored Royalist rule in Scotland
in 1645.
The Covenanter faction led by Argyll saw religious union with England as the best way to preserve a Presbyterian Kirk and in October 1643, the
Solemn League and Covenant
agreed a Presbyterian Union in return for Scottish military support.
Royalists and moderates in both Scotland and England opposed this on nationalist grounds, while religious
Independents
like
Oliver Cromwell
claimed he would fight, rather than agree to it.
The Covenanters and their English Presbyterian allies gradually came to see the Independents who dominated the
New Model Army
as a bigger threat than the Royalists and when Charles surrendered in 1646, they began negotiations to restore him to the English throne. In December 1647, Charles agreed to impose
Presbyterianism
in England for three years and suppress the Independents but his refusal to take the Covenant himself split the Covenanters into
Engagers
and Kirk Party fundamentalists or
Whiggamores
. Defeat in the
Second English Civil War
resulted in the execution of Charles in January 1649 and the Kirk Party taking control of the General Assembly.
In February 1649, the Scots proclaimed
Charles II
King of Scotland and Great Britain; under the terms of the
Treaty of Breda
, the Kirk Party agreed to restore Charles to the English throne and in return he accepted the Covenant. Defeats at
Dunbar
and
Worcester
resulted with Scotland being incorporated into the
Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland
in 1652.
Under the Commonwealth
[
edit
]
After defeat in 1651, the Covenanters split into two factions. Over two-thirds of the ministry supported the Resolution of December 1650 re-admitting Royalists and Engagers and were known as "Resolutioners". "Protestors" were largely former Kirk Party fundamentalists or Whiggamores who blamed defeat on compromise with "malignants". Differences between the two were both religious and political, including church government, religious toleration and the role of law in a godly society.
Following the events of 1648?51, Cromwell decided the only way forward was to eliminate the power of the Scottish landed elite and the Kirk. The Terms of Incorporation published on 12 February 1652 made a new Council of Scotland responsible for regulating church affairs and allowed freedom of worship for all Protestant sects. Since Presbyterianism was no longer the state religion, kirk sessions and synods functioned as before but its edicts were not enforced by civil penalties.
Covenanters were hostile to sects like the
Congregationalists
and
Quakers
because they advocated separation of church and state. Apart from a small number of Protestors known as Separatists, the vast majority refused to accept these changes, and Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth without further consultation on 21 April 1652.
Contests for control of individual presbyteries made the split increasingly bitter and in July 1653 each faction held its own General Assembly in Edinburgh.
Robert Lilburne
, English military commander in Scotland, used the excuse of Resolutioner church services praying for the success of
Glencairn's rising
to dissolve both sessions. The Assembly would not formally reconvene until 1690, the Resolutioner majority instead meeting in informal "Consultations" and Protestors holding field assemblies or
conventicles
outside Resolutioner-controlled kirk structures.
When
the Protectorate
was established in 1654,
Lord Broghill
, head of the Council of State for Scotland summarised his dilemma; "the Resolutioners love Charles Stuart and hate us, while the Protesters love neither him nor us."
Neither side was willing to co-operate with the Protectorate except in
Glasgow
, where Protestors led by
Patrick Gillespie
used the authorities in their contest with local Resolutioners.
Since the Resolutioners controlled 750 of 900 parishes, Broghill recognised they could not be ignored; his policy was to isolate the "extreme" elements of both factions, hoping to create a new, moderate majority.
He therefore encouraged internal divisions within the Kirk, including appointing Gillespie Principal of the
University of Glasgow
, against the wishes of the
James Guthrie
and
Warriston
-led Protestor majority. The Protectorate authorities effectively became arbitrators between the factions, each of whom appointed representatives to argue their case in London; the repercussions affected the Kirk for decades to come.
Restoration settlement
[
edit
]
After the
Restoration of the Monarchy
in 1660, Scotland regained control of the Kirk, but the
Rescissory Act 1661
restored the legal position of 1633 and removing the Covenanter reforms of 1638?1639. The Privy Council of Scotland restored bishops on 6 September 1661.
James Sharp
, leader of the Resolutioners, became
Archbishop of St Andrews
;
Robert Leighton
was consecrated
Bishop of Dunblane
, and soon an entire bench of bishops had been appointed.
In 1662, the Kirk was restored as the national church, independent sects banned and all office-holders required to renounce the 1638 Covenant; about a third, or around 270 in total, refused to do so and lost their positions as a result.
Most occurred in the south-west of Scotland, an area particularly strong in its Covenanting sympathies; the practice of holding conventicles outside the formal structure continued, often attracting thousands of worshippers.
The government alternated between persecution and toleration; in 1663, it declared dissenting ministers "seditious persons" and imposed heavy fines on those who failed to attend the parish churches of the "
King's curates"
. In 1666, a group of men from Galloway captured the local military commander, marched on Edinburgh and were defeated at the
Battle of Rullion Green
. Around 50 prisoners were taken, while a number of others were arrested; 33 were executed and the rest
transported
to Barbados.
The Rising led to the replacement of the
Duke of Rothes
as King's Commissioner by
John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale
who followed a more conciliatory policy. Letters of Indulgence were issued in 1669, 1672 and 1679, allowing evicted ministers to return to their parishes, if they agreed to avoid politics. A number returned but over 150 refused the offer, while many Episcopalians were alienated by the compromise.
The outcome was a return to persecution; preaching at a conventicle was made punishable by death, while attendance attracted severe sanctions. In 1674,
heritors
and masters were made responsible for the "good behaviour" of their tenants and servants; from 1677, this meant posting bonds for those living on their land. In 1678, 3,000 Lowland militia and 6,000 Highlanders, known as the "Highland Host", were billeted in the Covenanting shires, especially those in the South-West, as a form of punishment.
1679 rebellion and the Killing Time
[
edit
]
The assassination of Archbishop Sharp by Covenanter radicals in May 1679 led to a revolt that ended at the
Battle of Bothwell Bridge
in June. Although battlefield casualties were relatively few, over 1,200 prisoners were sentenced to transportation, the chief prosecutor being
Lord Advocate Rosehaugh
.
Claims of undocumented, indiscriminate killing in the aftermath of the battle have also been made.
Defeat split the movement into moderates and extremists, the latter headed by
Donald Cargill
and
Richard Cameron
who issued the
Sanquhar Declaration
in June 1680. While Covenanters previously claimed to object only to state religious policy, this renounced any allegiance to either Charles, or his Catholic brother
James
. Adherents were known as
Cameronians
, and although a relatively small minority, the deaths of Cameron, his brother and Cargill gained them considerable sympathy.
The 1681 Scottish Succession and Test Acts made obedience to the monarch a legal obligation, "regardless of religion", but in return confirmed the primacy of the Kirk "as currently constituted". This excluded the Covenanters, who wanted to restore it to the structure prevailing in 1640.
A number of government figures, including
James Dalrymple
,
chief legal officer
, and
Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll
, objected to inconsistencies in the Act and refused to swear.
[c]
Argyll was convicted of treason and sentenced to death, although he and Dalrymple escaped to the
Dutch Republic
.
The Cameronians were now organised more formally as the United Societies; estimates of their numbers vary from 6,000 to 7,000, mostly concentrated in Argyllshire.
Led by
James Renwick
, in 1684 copies of an
Apologetical Declaration
were posted in different locations, effectively declaring war on government officers. This led to the period known in Protestant historiography as "
the Killing Time
"; the Scottish Privy Council authorised the extrajudicial execution of any Covenanters caught in arms, policies carried out by troops under
John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee
.
At the same time, Lord Rosehaugh adopted the French practice of same day trial and execution for militants who refused to swear oaths of loyalty to the king.
Despite his Catholicism, James VII became king in April 1685 with widespread support, largely due to fears of civil war if he were bypassed, and opposition to re-opening past divisions within the Kirk.
These factors contributed to the rapid defeat of
Argyll's Rising
in June 1685; in a bid to widen its appeal, his manifesto omitted any mention of the 1638 Covenant. Renwick and his followers refused to support it as a result.
The Glorious Revolution and the 1690 settlement
[
edit
]
A major factor in the defeat of Argyll's Rising was the desire for stability within the Kirk. By issuing Letters of Indulgence to dissident Presbyterians in 1687, James now threatened to re-open this debate and undermine his own Episcopalian base. At the same time, he excluded the Society People, and created another Covenanter martyr with the execution of Renwick in February 1688.
In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis: the birth of
James Francis Edward
on 10 June created a Catholic heir, excluding James' Protestant daughter
Mary
and her husband
William of Orange
. Prosecuting the
Seven Bishops
seemed to go beyond tolerance for Catholicism and into an assault on the Episcopalian establishment; their acquittal on 30 June destroyed James' political authority.
Representatives from the English political class invited William
to assume the English throne; when he landed in
Brixham
on 5 November, James' army deserted him and he left for France on 23 December.
The
Scottish Convention
elected in March to determine settlement of the Scottish throne was dominated by Covenanter sympathisers. On 4 April, it passed the
Claim of Right
and the "Articles of Grievances", which held James forfeited the Crown by his actions; on 11 May, William and Mary became co-monarchs of Scotland. Although William wanted to retain bishops, the role played by Covenanters during the
Jacobite rising of 1689
, including the Cameronians' defence of
Dunkeld
in August, meant their views prevailed in the political settlement that followed. The General Assembly met in November 1690 for the first time since 1654; even before it convened, over 200 Episcopalian ministers had been removed from their livings.
The Assembly once again eliminated episcopacy and created two commissions for the south and north of the Tay, which over the next 25 years removed almost two-thirds of all ministers.
To offset this, nearly one hundred clergy returned to the Kirk in the 1693 and 1695 Acts of Indulgence, while others were protected by the local gentry and retained their positions until death by natural causes.
Following the 1690 settlement, a small minority of the United Societies followed Cameronian leader
Robert Hamilton
in refusing to re-enter the Kirk.
They continued as an informal grouping until 1706, when
John M'Millan
was appointed minister; in 1743, he and
Thomas Nairn
set up the
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland
.
Although the church still exists, the vast majority of its members joined the
Free Church of Scotland
in 1876.
Legacy
[
edit
]
Memorials
[
edit
]
Covenanter graves and memorials from the "Killing Time" became important in perpetuating a political message, initially by the small minority of the United Societies who remained outside the Kirk. In 1701, their Assembly undertook to recover or mark the graves of the dead; many were to be found in remote places, as the government of the time deliberately sought to avoid creating places of pilgrimage.
Old Mortality
, an 1816 novel by
Sir Walter Scott
, features a character who spends his time travelling around Scotland, renewing inscriptions on Covenanter graves. In 1966, the Scottish Covenanter Memorial Association was established, which maintains these monuments throughout Scotland. One of the most famous is that erected at
Greyfriars Kirkyard
in 1707, commemorating 18,000 martyrs killed from 1661 to 1680.
In 1721 and 1722,
Robert Wodrow
published
The History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland from the Restoration to the Revolution
, detailing the persecution of the Covenanter movement from 1660 to 1690. This work would be brought forward again when elements in the Church of Scotland felt it to be suffering state interference, as at the
Disruption of 1843
.
[58]
Covenanters in North America
[
edit
]
Throughout the 17th century, Covenanter congregations were established in
Ireland
, primarily in
Ulster
; for a variety of reasons, many subsequently migrated to
North America
. In 1717,
William Tennent
moved with his family to
Philadelphia
, where he later founded
Log College
, the first Presbyterian seminary in North America.
In North America, many former Covenanters joined the
Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America
, which was founded in 1743.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Scottish Gaelic
:
Cumhnantaich
- ^
James summarised this as "No bishops, no King"; the alternative view was best expressed by
Andrew Melville
as "Thair is twa Kings and twa Kingdomes in Scotland ... Chryst Jesus the King and this Kingdome the Kirk, whose subject King James the Saxt is";
the Kirk was subject only to God, and its members, including James, ruled by
presbyteries
, consisting of
ministers
and
elders
.
[4]
- ^
Poorly written, it seemed to require office holders to confirm both Jesus and the reigning monarch were head of the kirk.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Our Structure"
.
ChurchofScotland.org.uk
. Church of Scotland. 22 February 2010
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- ^
Wodrow.
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[
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]
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