Military command during the Late Roman Empire
The
Saxon Shore
(
Latin
:
litus Saxonicum
) was a military command of the
Late Roman Empire
, consisting of a series of fortifications on both sides of the
Channel
. It was established in the late 3rd century and was led by the "
Count of the Saxon Shore
". In the late 4th century, his functions were limited to
Britain
, while the fortifications in Gaul were established as separate commands. Several well-preserved Saxon Shore forts survive in east and south-east
England
.
Background
[
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]
During the latter half of the 3rd century, the
Roman Empire
faced a
grave crisis
. Internally, it was weakened by civil wars, the violent succession of brief emperors, and secession in the provinces, while externally it faced a new wave of attacks by barbarian tribes. Most of Britain had been
part of the empire
since the mid-1st century. It was protected from raids in the north by the
Hadrianic
and
Antonine Walls
, while a
fleet
of some size was also available.
However, as the frontiers came under increasing external pressure, fortifications were built throughout the Empire in order to protect cities and guard strategically important locations. It is in this context that the forts of the Saxon Shore were constructed. Already in the 230s, under
Severus Alexander
, several units had been withdrawn from the northern frontier and garrisoned at locations in the south, and had built new forts at
Brancaster
and
Caister-on-Sea
in Norfolk and
Reculver
in Kent. Dover was already fortified in the early 2nd century, and the other forts in this group were constructed in the period between the 270s and 290s.
Meaning of the term and role
[
edit
]
The only contemporary reference we possess that mentions the name "Saxon Shore" comes in the late 4th-century
Notitia Dignitatum
, which lists its commander, the
Comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam
("
Count of the Saxon Shore
in Britain"), and gives the names of the sites under his command and their respective complements of military personnel.
[1]
[2]
However, due to the absence of further evidence, theories have varied among scholars as to the exact meaning of the name, and also the nature and purpose of the chain of forts it refers to.
Two interpretations were put forward as to the meaning of the adjective "Saxon": either a shore
attacked
by
Saxons
, or a shore
settled
by Saxons. Some argue that the latter hypothesis is supported by
Eutropius
, who states that during the 280s the sea along the coasts of Belgica and Armorica was "infested with Franks and Saxons", and that this was why
Carausius
was first put in charge of the fleet there.
[3]
[
non-primary source needed
]
However, Eutropius refers to Franks and Saxons as seaborne invaders. It also receives at least partial support from archaeological finds, as artefacts of a Germanic style have been found in burials, while there is evidence of the presence of Saxons (mostly
laeti
Roman army recruits though) in some numbers in SE England and the northern coasts of Gaul around
Boulogne-sur-Mer
and
Bayeux
from the middle of the 5th century onwards.
[4]
This, in turn, mirrors a well documented practice of deliberately settling Germanic tribes (Franks became
foederati
in 358 AD under Emperor Julian) to strengthen Roman defences. Nevertheless, the earliest evidence for widespread Saxon settlement in Britain typically dates to the 5th century, significantly later than the channel defences of the late 3rd and 4th century associated with the Saxon Shore.
The other interpretation, supported by Stephen Johnson, holds that the forts fulfilled a coastal defence role against seaborne invaders, mostly Saxons and Franks,
[5]
and acted as bases for the naval units operating against them. This view is reinforced by the parallel chain of fortifications across the
Channel
on the northern coasts of
Gaul
, which complemented the British forts, suggesting a unified defensive system.
[6]
Other scholars like John Cotterill however consider the threat posed by Germanic raiders, at least in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, to be exaggerated. They interpret the construction of the forts at Brancaster, Caister-on-Sea and Reculver in the early 3rd century and their location at the estuaries of navigable rivers as pointing to a different role: fortified points for transport and supply between Britain and Gaul, without any relation (at least at that time) to countering seaborne piracy.
[7]
This view is supported by contemporary references to the supplying of the army of
Julian the Apostate
by Caesar with grain from Britain during his campaign in Gaul in 359,
[8]
and their use as secure landing places by
Count Theodosius
during the suppression of the
Great Conspiracy
a few years later.
[9]
[
non-primary source needed
]
Another theory, proposed by D.A. White, was that the extended system of large stone forts was disproportionate to any threat by seaborne Germanic raiders, and that it was actually conceived and constructed during the secession of
Carausius
and
Allectus
(the
Carausian Revolt
) in 289?296, and with an entirely different enemy in mind: they were to guard against an attempt at reconquest by the Empire. This view, although widely disputed, has found recent support from archaeological evidence at Pevensey, which dates the fort's construction to the early 290s.
[10]
Whatever their original purpose, it is virtually certain that in the late 4th century the forts and their garrisons were employed in operations against Frankish and Saxon pirates. Britain was abandoned by Rome in 410, with
Armorica
following soon after. The forts on both sides continued to be inhabited in the following centuries, and in Britain in particular several continued in use well into the
Anglo-Saxon
period.
[
citation needed
]
The forts
[
edit
]
In Britain
[
edit
]
The nine forts mentioned in the
Notitia Dignitatum
for Britain are listed here, from north to south, with their garrisons.
[1]
- Branodunum
(
Brancaster
,
Norfolk
). One of the earliest forts, dated to the 230s. It was built to guard the
Wash
approaches and is of a typical rectangular
castrum
layout.
[11]
It was garrisoned by the
Equites Dalmatae
Brandodunenses
, although evidence exists suggesting that its original garrison was the
cohors I Aquitanorum
.
[12]
- Gariannonum
(
Burgh Castle
,
Norfolk
). Established between 260 and the mid-270s to guard the
River Yare
(
Gariannus Fluvius
), it was garrisoned by the
Equites Stablesiani
Gariannoneses
. Although there is some discussion as to whether this is actually the fort at
Caister-on-Sea
, and being on the opposite bank of the same estuary as Burgh Castle.
- Othona
(
Bradwell-on-Sea
,
Essex
). Garrisoned by the
Numerus
Fortensium
.
- Regulbium
(
Reculver
,
Kent
). Together with Brancaster one of the earliest forts, built in the 210s to guard the
Thames
estuary, it is likewise a
castrum
.
[13]
It was garrisoned by the
cohors I Baetasiorum
since the 3rd century.
- Rutupiae
(
Richborough
,
Kent
), garrisoned by parts of the
Legio II Augusta
.
- Dubris
(
Dover Castle
,
Kent
), garrisoned by the
Milites
Tungrecani
.
- Portus Lemanis
(
Lympne
,
Kent
), garrisoned by the
Numerus Turnacensium
.
- Anderitum
(
Pevensey Castle
,
East Sussex
), garrisoned by the
Numerus Abulcorum
.
- Portus Adurni
(
Portchester Castle
,
Hampshire
), garrisoned by a
Numerus Exploratorum
.
There are a few other sites that clearly belonged to the system of the British branch of the Saxon Shore (the so-called "
Wash
-
Solent
limes
"), although they are not included in the
Notitia
, such as the forts at
Walton Castle, Suffolk
, which has by now sunk into the sea due to erosion, and at
Caister-on-Sea
. In the south,
Carisbrooke Castle
on the
Isle of Wight
and
Clausentum
(
Bitterne
, in modern
Southampton
) are also regarded as westward extensions of the fortification chain. Other sites probably connected to the Saxon Shore system are the sunken fort at
Skegness
, and the remains of possible signal stations at
Thornham
in Norfolk,
Corton
in Suffolk and
Hadleigh
in Essex.
[14]
Further north on the coast, the precautions took the form of central depots at
Lindum
(
Lincoln
) and
Malton
with roads radiating to coastal signal stations. When an alert was relayed to the base, troops could be dispatched along the road. Further up the coast in North Yorkshire, a series of coastal watchtowers (at
Huntcliff
,
Filey
,
Ravenscar
,
Goldsborough
, and
Scarborough
) was constructed, linking the southern defences to the northern military zone of the Wall.
[15]
Similar coastal fortifications are also found in
Wales
, at
Cardiff
and
Caer Gybi
. The only fort in this style in the northern military zone is
Lancaster, Lancashire
, built sometime in the mid-late 3rd century replacing an earlier fort and extramural community, which may reflect the extent of coastal protection on the north-west coast from invading tribes from Ireland.
In Gaul
[
edit
]
The
Notitia
also includes two separate commands for the northern coast of Gaul, both of which belonged to the Saxon Shore system. However, when the list was compiled, in
c.
420 AD
, Britain had been abandoned by Roman forces. The first command controlled the shores of the province
Belgica Secunda
(roughly between the estuaries of the
Scheldt
and the
Somme
), under the
dux Belgicae Secundae
with headquarters at Portus Aepatiaci:
[16]
- Marcae
(unidentified location near
Calais
, possibly
Marquise
or
Marck
), garrisoned by the
Equites Dalmatae
. In the
Notitia
, together with
Grannona
, it is the only site on the Gallic shore to be explicitly referred to as lying
in litore Saxonico
.
- Locus Quartensis sive Hornensis
(probably at the mouth of the
Somme
), the port of the
classis Sambrica
("Fleet of the Somme")
- Portus Aepatiaci
(possibly
Etaples
), garrisoned by the
milites
Nervii
.
Although not mentioned in the
Notitia
, the port of
Gesoriacum
or
Bononia
(
Boulogne-sur-Mer
), which until 296 was the main base of the
Classis Britannica
, would also have come under the
dux Belgicae Secundae
.
To this group also belongs the Roman fort at
Oudenburg
in Belgium.
Further west, under the
dux tractus Armoricani et Nervicani
, were mainly the coasts of
Armorica
, nowadays
Normandy
and
Brittany
. The
Notitia
lists the following sites:
[17]
- Grannona
(disputed location, either at the mouths of the
Seine
or at
Port-en-Bessin
[18]
), the seat of the
dux
, garrisoned by the
cohors prima nova Armoricana
. In the
Notitia
, it is explicitly mentioned as lying
in litore Saxonico
.
- Rotomagus
(
Rouen
), garrisoned by the
milites Ursariensii
- Constantia
(
Coutances
), garrisoned by the
legio
I Flavia Gallicana Constantia
- Abricantis
(
Avranches
), garrisoned by the
milites Dalmati
- Grannona
(uncertain whether this is a different location than the first
Grannona
, perhaps
Granville
), garrisoned by the
milites Grannonensii
- Aleto
or
Aletum
(Aleth, near
Saint-Malo
), garrisoned by the
milites Martensii
- Osismis
(
Brest
), garrisoned by the
milites Mauri Osismiaci
- Blabia
(perhaps
Hennebont
), garrisoned by the
milites Carronensii
- Benetis
(possibly
Vannes
), garrisoned by the
milites Mauri Beneti
- Manatias
(
Nantes
), garrisoned by the
milites superventores
In addition, there are several other sites where a Roman military presence has been suggested. At
Alderney
, the fort known as "The Nunnery" is known to date to Roman times,
[19]
and the settlement at Longy Common has been cited as evidence of a Roman military establishment, though the archaeological evidence there is, at best, scant.
[20]
In popular culture
[
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]
References
[
edit
]
Notes
- ^
a
b
Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ. XXVIII
- ^
Guy Halsall,
Worlds of Arthur: Facts and Fictions of the Dark Ages
, 2013, pp. 35
- ^
Eutropius
,
Breviarium
,
IX.21
- ^
CBA Report 18: The Saxon Shore
, pp. 63-67
- ^
Aurelius Victor
,
De Caesaribus
XXXIX.20-21
- ^
Fields 2006
, pp. 39?42
- ^
Fields 2006
, pp. 43?45
- ^
Ammianus Marcellinus
,
Historia Romana
,
XVIII.2.3
;
Zosimus
,
Historia Nova
,
III.5.2
- ^
Ammianus Marcellinus
,
Historia Romana
,
XXVII.8.6-7
- ^
Fields 2006
, pp. 42?43
- ^
CBA Report 18: The Saxon Shore
, pp.3-5
- ^
CBA Report 18: The Saxon Shore
, p. 8
- ^
Attested by the only inscription found (see
Regulbium
at RomanBritain.org
)
- ^
D. White (1961)
- ^
Roman Frontier Studies
, pp. 124-147
- ^
Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ. XXXVIII
- ^
Notitia Dignitatum, Pars Occ. XXXVII
- ^
CBA Report 18: The Saxon Shore
, p. 67
- ^
Alderney ruin found to be Roman fort
, BBC News, 25 November 2011
- ^
CBA Report 18: The Saxon Shore
, pp. 31-34
Sources
- Breeze, David J. (1994).
Roman Forts in Britain
. Shire Publications.
ISBN
0-85263-654-7
.
- Cotterill, John (1993). "Saxon Raiding and the Role of the Late Roman Coastal Forts of Britain".
Britannia
.
24
(XXIV): 227?239.
doi
:
10.2307/526729
.
JSTOR
526729
.
S2CID
161578402
.
- Cottrell, Leonard
(1964).
The Roman Forts of the Saxon Shore
, London: HMSO.
- Fields, Nic (2006).
Rome's Saxon Shore - Coastal Defences of Roman Britain AD 250-500 (Fortress 56)
.
Osprey Publishing
.
ISBN
978-1-84603-094-9
.
- Johnson, Stephen (1979).
The Roman Forts of the Saxon Shore
. London: Elek.
ISBN
978-0-236-40165-9
.
- Johnston, David E.; et als. (1977).
"The Saxon Shore"
(PDF)
.
CBA Research Report
(18)
. Retrieved
20 August
2007
.
- Maxfield, Valerie A.
(1989).
The Saxon Shore, a Handbook
.
University of Exeter
Press.
ISBN
0-85989-330-8
.
- Maxfield, Valerie A.; Dobson, Michael J., eds. (1991).
Roman Frontier Studies: Proceedings of the XVth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies
.
Exeter
: Exeter University Press.
ISBN
978-0-85989-710-5
.
- Myers John N.L. (1986)
The English Settlements
, Oxford University Press
ISBN
0-19-821719-6
- Pearson, Andrew (2002).
The Roman Shore Forts: Coastal Defences of Southern Britain
. Tempus Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-7524-1949-7
.
- Strugnell, Kenneth Wenham (1973).
Seagates to the Saxon Shore
, Terence Dalton Ltd.
ISBN
978-0-90096-320-9
- Ward, John (1911).
Romano-British Buildings and Earthworks
.
- White, Donald A. (1961).
Litus Saxonicum: the British Saxon Shore in Scholarship and History
.
Madison, W
:
University of Wisconsin Press
.
External links
[
edit
]
Media related to
Saxon Shore
at Wikimedia Commons