American political philosopher (1938?2002)
Robert Nozick
|
---|
Nozick in 1977
|
Born
| (
1938-11-16
)
November 16, 1938
New York City, U.S.
|
---|
Died
| January 23, 2002
(2002-01-23)
(aged 63)
|
---|
Education
| Columbia University
(
BA
)
Princeton University
(
PhD
)
Oxford University
|
---|
|
Era
| 20th-century philosophy
|
---|
Region
| Western philosophy
|
---|
School
| Analytic
Libertarianism
|
---|
Doctoral advisors
| Carl Gustav Hempel
|
---|
Main interests
| Political philosophy
, ethics,
epistemology
|
---|
Notable ideas
| Utility monster
,
experience machine
,
entitlement theory
of
justice
, Nozick's
Lockean proviso
,
[1]
Wilt Chamberlain argument
, paradox of
deontology
,
[2]
deductive closure
,
Nozick's four conditions on knowledge
, rejection of the principle of
epistemic closure
|
---|
|
Robert Nozick
(
; November 16, 1938 ? January 23, 2002) was an American philosopher. He held the Joseph Pellegrino
University Professorship
at
Harvard University
,
[3]
and was president of the
American Philosophical Association
. He is best known for his book
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
(1974), a
libertarian
answer to
John Rawls
'
A Theory of Justice
(1971), in which Nozick proposes his
minimal state
as the only justifiable form of government. His later work
Philosophical Explanations
(1981) advanced notable epistemological claims, namely his counterfactual theory of knowledge. It won the
Phi Beta Kappa Society
's
Ralph Waldo Emerson Award
the following year.
Nozick's other work involved ethics,
decision theory
,
philosophy of mind
,
metaphysics
and
epistemology
. His final work before his death,
Invariances
(2001), introduced his theory of evolutionary
cosmology
, by which he argues invariances, and hence objectivity itself, emerged through evolution across
possible worlds
.
[4]
Personal life
[
edit
]
Nozick was born in
Brooklyn
to a family of
Jewish
descent. His mother was born Sophie Cohen, and his father was a Jew from a Russian
shtetl
who had been born with the name Cohen and who ran a small business.
[5]
Nozick attended the public schools in Brooklyn. He was then educated at
Columbia College, Columbia University
(
A.B.
1959,
summa cum laude
), where he studied with
Sidney Morgenbesser
;
Princeton University
(PhD 1963) under
Carl Hempel
; and at
Oxford University
as a
Fulbright Scholar
(1963?1964).
At one point, Nozick joined the
Young People's Socialist League
, and at
Columbia University
he founded the local chapter of the
Student League for Industrial Democracy
. He began to move away from socialist ideals when exposed to
Friedrich Hayek
's
The Constitution of Liberty
, claiming he "was pulled into libertarianism reluctantly" when he found himself unable to form satisfactory responses to libertarian arguments.
[6]
After receiving his undergraduate degree in 1959, he married Barbara Fierer. They had two children, Emily and David. The Nozicks eventually divorced; Nozick later married the poet
Gjertrud Schnackenberg
.
Nozick died in 2002 after a prolonged struggle with
stomach cancer
.
[7]
He was interred at
Mount Auburn Cemetery
in
Cambridge, Massachusetts
.
Career and works
[
edit
]
Political philosophy
[
edit
]
Nozick's first book,
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
(1974), argues that only a
minimal
state limited to the functions of protection against "force, fraud, theft, and administering courts of law" can be justified, as any more extensive state would violate people's individual rights.
[8]
Nozick believed that a distribution of goods is just when brought about by
free exchange
among consenting adults, trading from a baseline position where the principles of
entitlement theory
are upheld. In one example, Nozick uses the example of basketball player
Wilt Chamberlain
to show that even when large
inequalities
subsequently emerge from the processes of free transfer (i.e. paying extra money just to watch Wilt Chamberlain play), the resulting distributions are just so long as all consenting parties have freely consented to such exchanges.
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
is often contrasted to
John Rawls
's
A Theory of Justice
in popular academic discourse, as it challenged the partial conclusion of Rawls's
difference principle
, that "social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to be of greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society."
Nozick's philosophy also claims a heritage from
John Locke
's
Second Treatise on Government
and seeks to ground itself upon a
natural law
doctrine, but breaks distinctly with Locke on issues of self-ownership by attempting to
secularize
its claims. Nozick also appealed to the second formulation of
Immanuel Kant
's
categorical imperative
: that people should be treated as an end in themselves, not merely as a means to an end. Nozick terms this the 'separateness of persons', saying that "there are is no social entity...there are only individual people", and that we ought to "respect and take account of the fact that [each individual] is a separate person".
[9]
Most controversially, Nozick argued that consistent application of libertarian self-ownership would allow for consensual, non-coercive
enslavement
contracts between adults. He rejected the notion of
inalienable rights
advanced by Locke and most contemporary capitalist-oriented libertarian academics, writing in
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
that the typical notion of a "free system" would allow individuals to voluntarily enter into non-coercive
slave contracts
.
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
received a
National Book Award
in the
category of Philosophy and Religion
in the year following its original publication.
[14]
Thought experiments regarding utilitarianism
[
edit
]
Early sections of
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
, akin to the introduction of
A Theory of Justice
, see Nozick implicitly join Rawls's attempts to discredit
utilitarianism
. Nozick's case differs somewhat in that it mainly targets
hedonism
and relies on a variety of separate intuition pumps, although both works draw from Kantian principles.
Most famously, Nozick introduced the
experience machine
in an attempt to show that
ethical hedonism
is not truly what individuals desire, nor what we ought to desire:
There are also substantial puzzles when we ask what matters other than how people's experiences feel "from the inside." Suppose there were an experience machine that would give you any experience you desired. Superduper neuropsychologists could stimulate your brain so that you would think and feel you were writing a great novel, or making a friend, or reading an interesting book. All the time you would be floating in a tank, with electrodes attached to your brain. Should you plug into this machine for life, preprogramming your life's experiences?
[15]
Nozick claims that life in an experience machine would have no value, and provides several explanations as to why this might be, including (but not limited to): the want to do certain things, and not just have the experience of doing them; the want to actually become a certain sort of person; and that plugging into an experience machine limits us to a man-made reality.
Another intuition pump Nozick proposes is the
utility monster
, a thought experiment designed to show that
average utilitarianism
could lead to a situation where the needs of the vast majority were sacrificed for one individual. In his exploration of deontological ethics and animal rights, Nozick coins the phrase "utilitarianism for animals, Kantianism for people", wherein the separateness of individual humans is acknowledged but the only moral metric assigned to animals is that of maximising pleasure:
[Utilitarianism for animals, Kantianism for people] says: (1) maximize the total happiness of all living beings; (2) place stringent side constraints on what one may do to human beings.
[16]
Before introducing the utility monster, Nozick raises a hypothetical scenario where someone might, "by some strange causal connection", kill 10,000 unowned cows to die painlessly by snapping their fingers, asking whether it would be morally wrong to do so.
[17]
On the calculus of pleasure that "utilitarianism for animals, Kantianism for people" uses, assuming the death of these cows could be used to provide pleasure for humans in some way, then the (painless) deaths of the cows would be morally permissible as it has no negative impact upon the utilitarian equation.
Nozick later explicitly raises the example of utility monsters to "embarrass [utilitarian theory]": since humans benefit from the mass sacrifice and consumption of animals, and also possess the ability to kill them painlessly (i.e., without any negative effect on the utilitarian calculation of net pleasure), it is permissible humans to maximise their consumption of meat so long as they derive pleasure from it. Nozick takes issue with this as it makes animals "too subordinate" to humans, counter to his view that animals ought to "count for something"
[18]
a
.
Epistemology
[
edit
]
In
Philosophical Explanations
(1981), Nozick provided novel accounts of
knowledge
,
free will
,
personal identity
, the nature of
value
, and the meaning of life. He also put forward an epistemological system which attempted to deal with both the
Gettier problem
and those posed by
skepticism
. This highly influential argument eschewed
justification
as a necessary requirement for knowledge.
[19]
: ch. 7
Nozick gives four conditions for S's knowing that P (S=Subject / P=Proposition):
- P is true
- S believes that P
- If it were the case that (not-P), S would not believe that P
- If it were the case that P, S would believe that P
Nozick's third and fourth conditions are
counterfactuals
. He called this the "tracking theory" of knowledge. Nozick believed the counterfactual conditionals bring out an important aspect of our intuitive grasp of knowledge: For any given fact, the believer's method (M) must reliably track the truth despite varying relevant conditions. In this way, Nozick's theory is similar to
reliabilism
. Due to certain counterexamples that could otherwise be raised against these counterfactual conditions, Nozick specified that:
- If P weren't the case and S were to use M to arrive at a belief whether or not P, then S wouldn't believe, via M, that P.
- If P were the case and S were to use M to arrive at a belief whether or not P, then S would believe, via M, that P.
[20]
A major feature of Nozick's theory of knowledge is his rejection of the
principle of deductive closure
. This principle states that if S knows X and S knows that X implies Y, then S knows Y. Nozick's truth tracking conditions do not allow for the principle of deductive closure.
Later works
[
edit
]
The Examined Life
(1989), aimed towards a more general audience, explores themes of love, the impact of death, questions of faith, the nature of reality, and the meaning of life. The book takes its name from the quote by
Socrates
, that "the unexamined life is not worth living". In it, Nozick attempts to find meaning in everyday experiences, and considers how we might come to feel "more real".
[21]
In this pursuit, Nozick discusses the death of his father, reappraises the experience machine, and proposes "the matrix of reality" as a means of understanding how individuals might better connect with reality in their own lives.
[22]
The Nature of Rationality
(1993) presents a theory of practical reason that attempts to embellish classical decision theory. In this work, Nozick grapples with
Newcomb's problem
and the
Prisoner's Dilemma
, and introduces the concept of symbolic utility to explain how actions might symbolize certain ideas, rather than being carried out to maximize expected utility in the future.
Socratic Puzzles
(1997) is a collection of Nozick's previous papers alongside some new essays. While the discussions are quite disparate, the essays generally draw from Nozick's previous interests in both politics and philosophy. Notably, this includes Nozick's 1983 review of
The Case for Animal Rights
by
Tom Regan
, where says animal rights activists are often considered "cranks" and appears to go back on the vegetarian position he previously maintained in
Anarchy, State and Utopia
.
[23]
[24]
Nozick's final work,
Invariances
(2001), applies insights from physics and biology to questions of
objectivity
in such areas as the nature of necessity and
moral value
. Nozick introduces his theory of truth, in which he leans towards a
deflationary theory of truth
, but argues that
objectivity
arises through being invariant under various transformations. For example, space-time is a significant objective fact because an interval involving both temporal and spatial separation is invariant, whereas no simpler interval involving only temporal or only spatial separation is invariant under
Lorentz transformations
. Nozick argues that invariances, and hence objectivity itself, emerged through a theory of evolutionary cosmology across
possible worlds
.
[25]
Later reflections on libertarianism
[
edit
]
Nozick pronounced some misgivings about libertarianism ? specifically his own work
Anarchy, State and Utopia
? in his later publications. Some later editions of
The Examined Life
advertise this fact explicitly in the blurb, saying Nozick "refutes his earlier claims of libertarianism" in one of the book's essays, "The Zigzag of Politics". In the introduction of
The Examined Life
, Nozick says his earlier works on political philosophy "now [seem] seriously inadequate", and later repeats this claim in the first chapter of
The Nature of Rationality
.
[26]
[27]
In these works, Nozick also praised political ideals which ran contrary to the arguments canvassed in
Anarchy, State and Utopia
. In
The Examined Life
, Nozick proposes wealth redistribution via an
inheritance tax
and upholds the value of
liberal democracy
.
[28]
In
The Nature of Rationality
, Nozick calls
truth
a
primary good
, explicitly appropriating Rawls'
A Theory of Justice
.
[29]
In the same work, however, Nozick implies that
minimum wage
laws are unjust
b
, and later denigrates
Marxism
before vindicating capitalism, making reference to
Adam Smith
's
The Wealth of Nations
.
[30]
Nozick also broke away from libertarian principles in his own personal life, invoking rent control laws against
Erich Segal
? who was at one point Nozick's landlord ? and winning over $30,000 in a settlement. Nozick later claimed to regret doing this, saying he was moved by "intense irritation" with Segal and his legal representatives at the time, and was quoted in an interview saying "sometimes you have to do what you have to do."
[31]
Some of Nozick's later works seem to endorse libertarian principles. In
Invariances
, Nozick advances the "four layers of ethics", which at its core maintains an explicitly libertarian underpinning.
[32]
In
Socratic Puzzles
, Nozick republished some of his old essays with a libertarian grounding, such as "Coercion" and "On The Randian Argument", alongside new essays such as "On Austrian Methodology" and "Why Do Intellectuals Oppose Capitalism?". However, Nozick does allude to some continued reservations about libertarianism in its introduction, saying that "it is disconcerting to be known primarily for an early work".
[33]
Scholars and journalists have since debated what Nozick's true political position was before the end of his life.
[34]
Writing for
Slate
,
Stephen Metcalf
notes one of Nozick's core claims in
The Examined Life
, that actions done through government serve as markers of "our human solidarity". Metcalf then postulates that Nozick felt this was threatened by
neoliberal
politics.
[35]
Libertarian journalist
Julian Sanchez
, who interviewed Nozick shortly before his death, claims that Nozick "always thought of himself as a libertarian in a broad sense, right up to his final days, even as his views became somewhat less 'hardcore.'"
[36]
Philosophical method
[
edit
]
Nozick was sometimes admired for the exploratory style of his philosophizing, often content to raise tantalizing philosophical possibilities and then leave judgment to the reader. In his review of
The Nature of Rationality
,
Anthony Gottlieb
praised this style, noting its place in Nozick's approach to writing philosophy:
"From Mr. Nozick you always expect fireworks, even if some of them go off in their box...Start pondering a sentence and you will find yourself led away prematurely by a parenthetical question; think about the question and you will be dragged into a discursive footnote...Yet it is worth the effort ? certainly for regular readers of philosophy, and often for others."
[37]
Jason Brennan
has related this point to Nozick's "surprising amount of humility, at least in his writings". Brennan makes a point of showing how this enabled Nozick to reach surprising conclusions while also drawing attention to one of Nozick's more famous quotes which also made the headline of his
obituary
in
The Economist
, that "there is room for words on subjects other than last words".
[38]
[39]
Nozick was also notable for drawing from literature outside of philosophy, namely
economics
,
physics
,
evolutionary biology
,
decision theory
,
anthropology
, and
computer science
, amongst other disciplines.
[40]
[41]
In popular culture
[
edit
]
In the
23rd episode
of HBO's show
The Sopranos
, a eyewitness to one of Tony Soprano's crimes is seen at home reading
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
, by Robert Nozick.
Dani Rodrik
uses
Bo Rothstein
's view to point out that the TV show runners take a position in the debate by how they showed the eyewitness reacting to finding out the man they pointed out as the culprit of the crime he saw was actually the local mafia boss, immediately after the book appears on screen.
[42]
Bibliography
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- a.
^
Nozick's discussion of animal rights pre-dates
Peter Singer
's more comprehensive
Animal Liberation
. Singer's utilitarian position on animal rights was known to Nozick at the time, however, and he expresses misgivings about this in Chapter 3 (footnote 11) of
Anarchy, State and Utopia
.
- b.
^
From p.27 of
The Nature of Rationality
: "On these grounds, one might claim that certain antidrug enforcement measures
symbolize
reducing the amount of drug use and that minimum wage laws
symbolize
helping the poor"
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Mack, Eric (May 30, 2019). "Robert Nozick's Political Philosophy". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^
"How can a concern for the non-violation of
C
[i.e. some deontological constraint] lead to refusal to violate
C
even when this would prevent other more extensive violations of
C
?": Robert Nozick,
Anarchy, State and Utopia
, Basic Books (1974), p. 30 as quoted by Ulrike Heuer, "Paradox of Deontology, Revisited", in: Mark Timmons (ed.),
Oxford Studies in Normative Ethics
. Oxford University Press (2011).
- ^
"Robert Nozick, 1938?2002".
Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association
, November 2002:
76
(2).
- ^
Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers
, Volume 1, edited by John R. Shook, Thoemmes Press, 2005, p.1838
- ^
"Professor Robert Nozick"
.
Daily Telegraph
. 2002.
ISSN
0307-1235
. Retrieved
August 1,
2018
.
- ^
Albert Zlabinger (December 1, 1977).
"An Interview with Robert Nozick"
.
www.libertarianism.org
. CATO Institute
. Retrieved
December 12,
2023
.
- ^
For biographies, memorials, and obituaries see:
- Feser, Edward (May 4, 2005).
"Robert Nozick (1938?2002)"
.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
.
- "Obituary:Professor Robert Nozick"
.
Daily Telegraph
. January 28, 2002
. Retrieved
April 17,
2017
.
- Ryan, Alan (April 12, 2014).
"Obituary: Professor Robert Nozick"
.
The Independent
. Retrieved
April 17,
2017
.
- Schaefer, David Lewis.
"Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia"
.
The New York Sun
. Retrieved
April 17,
2017
.
- O'Grady, Jane (February 1, 2007).
"Robert Nozick: Leftwing political philosopher whose rightward shift set the tone for the Reagan-Thatcher era"
.
The Guardian
. Retrieved
April 17,
2017
.
correction from original of 26 January 2002
- Philosopher Nozick dies at 63
From the Harvard Gazette
Archived
September 18, 2012, at the
Wayback Machine
- Robert Nozick Memorial minute
Archived
January 4, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Feser, Edward.
"Robert Nozick (1938?2002)"
.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
. Retrieved
March 13,
2017
.
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1974).
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
. Basic Books. p. 32-33.
- ^
Ellerman, David (September 2005).
"
Translatio
versus
Concessio
: Retrieving the Debate about Contracts of Alienation with an Application to Today's Employment Contract"
(PDF)
.
Politics & Society
.
35
(3). Sage Publications: 449?80.
doi
:
10.1177/0032329205278463
.
S2CID
158624143
. Retrieved
April 17,
2017
.
- ^
A summary of the political philosophy of Robert Nozick
by R. N. Johnson
Archived
February 4, 2002, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Jonathan Wolff (October 25, 2007).
"Robert Nozick, Libertarianism, And Utopia"
- ^
Nozick on Newcomb's Problem and Prisoners' Dilemma
by S. L. Hurley
Archived
March 1, 2005, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"National Book Awards ? 1975 [https://web.archive.org/web/20110909065656/http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1975.html Archived
September 9, 2011, at the
Wayback Machine
.
National Book Foundation
. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1974).
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
. Basic Books. p. 42-43.
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1974).
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
. Basic Books. p. 39.
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1974).
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
. Basic Books. p. 36.
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1974).
Anarchy, State, and Utopia
. Basic Books. p. 35-42.
- ^
Schmidtz, David (2002).
Robert Nozick
. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
0-521-00671-6
.
- ^
Keith Derose, Solving the Skeptical Problem
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations
, p.7-8, p.15. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
978-0-671-72501-3
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations
, p.182-183. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
978-0-671-72501-3
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
Socratic Puzzles
, p.280-285. Harvard University Press.
- ^
"Animal Rights"
.
The New York Times
. December 18, 1983.
- ^
Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, Volume 1, edited by John R. Shook, A&C Black, 2005, p.1838
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations
, p.17. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
978-0-671-72501-3
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Nature of Rationality
, p.32. Princeton University Press.
ISBN
0-691-02096-5
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations
, p.28-32. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
978-0-671-72501-3
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Nature of Rationality
, p.68. Princeton University Press.
ISBN
0-691-02096-5
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
The Nature of Rationality
, p.27, p.130-131. Princeton University Press.
ISBN
0-691-02096-5
- ^
Sanchez, Julian (April 8, 2003).
"Nozick's Apartment"
. Retrieved
December 14,
2023
.
- ^
Nozick, Robert (2001).
Invariances
, p.280-282. Harvard University Press
- ^
Nozick, Robert (1989).
Socratic Puzzles
, p.17. Harvard University Press.
- ^
Herbjørnsrud, Dag (2002).
Leaving Libertarianism: Social Ties in Robert Nozick's New Philosophy
. Oslo, Norway: University of Oslo.
- ^
Metcalf, Stephen (June 24, 2011).
"The Liberty Scam: Why even Robert Nozick, the philosophical father of libertarianism, gave up on the movement he inspired"
.
slate.com
. Retrieved
April 17,
2017
.
- ^
Julian Sanchez
,
"Nozick, Libertarianism, and Thought Experiments"
.
- ^
Gottlieb, Anthony (August 22, 1993).
"Why Do You Do the Things You Do?"
.
The New York Review of Books
. Retrieved
March 8,
2024
.
- ^
Brennan, Jason (June 29, 2011).
"Nozick on Philosophical Explorations: There is Room for Words other than Last Words"
.
Bleeding Heart Libertarians
. Retrieved
March 8,
2024
.
- ^
"Not all words need be last words"
.
The Economist
. Retrieved
March 8,
2024
.
- ^
Ibid.
- ^
Williams, Bernard.
"Cosmic Philosopher"
.
The New York Review of Books
. Retrieved
August 1,
2018
.
- ^
Rodrik, Dani (September 5, 2009).
"Tony Soprano and Robert Nozick"
.
Dani Rodrik's weblog
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Cohen, G. A.
(1995). "Robert Nozick and Wilt Chamberlain: How Patterns Preserve Liberty".
Self-Ownership, Freedom, and Equality
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19?37.
ISBN
978-0521471749
.
OCLC
612482692
.
- Frankel Paul, Ellen; Fred D. Miller, Jr. and Jeffrey Paul (eds.), (2004)
Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick
,
Cambridge University Press
,
ISBN
0521615143
- Frankel Paul, Ellen (2008). "Nozick, Robert (1938?2002)". In
Hamowy, Ronald
(ed.).
The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications
,
Cato Institute
. pp. 360?62.
doi
:
10.4135/9781412965811.n220
.
ISBN
978-1412965804
.
LCCN
2008009151
.
OCLC
750831024
.
- Mack, Eric
(2014)
Robert Nozick's Political Philosophy
,
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
, June 22, 2014.
- Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003).
Introducing Political Philosophy
. Icon Books.
ISBN
184046450X
.
- Schaefer, David Lewis (2008)
Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia
,
The New York Sun
, April 30, 2008.
- Wolff, Jonathan (1991),
Robert Nozick: Property, Justice, and the Minimal State.
Polity Press.
ISBN
978-0745680453
External links
[
edit
]
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