Branch of Protestant Christianity in which the church is governed by presbyters (elders)
This article is about the branch of Reformed Protestantism. For the method of church organization, see
Presbyterian polity
.
Presbyterianism
is a
Reformed
(Calvinist)
Protestant
tradition named for its form of
church government
by representative assemblies of
elders
.
[2]
Though there are other Reformed churches that are structurally similar, the word
Presbyterian
is applied to churches that trace their roots to the
Church of Scotland
or to
English Dissenter groups
that formed during the
English Civil War
.
[3]
Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the
authority of the Scriptures
, and the necessity of
grace
through
faith
in Christ. Presbyterian church government was ensured in Scotland by the
Acts of Union
in 1707,
[4]
which created the
Kingdom of Great Britain
. In fact, most Presbyterians found in England can trace a
Scottish
connection, and the Presbyterian denomination was also taken to
North America
, mostly by
Scots
and
Scots-Irish
immigrants. The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the
Reformed theology
of
John Calvin
and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches which use
Presbyterian polity
are governed by
sessions
made up of representatives of the congregation (
elders
), a
conciliar
approach as with other levels of decision-making (
presbytery
,
synod
, and
general assembly
). There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world.
[5]
The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the
Reformation
of the 16th century, the example of John Calvin's
Republic of Geneva
being particularly influential. Most Reformed churches that trace their history back to Scotland are either presbyterian or
congregationalist
in government. In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the
ecumenical movement
, including the
World Council of Churches
. Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the
World Communion of Reformed Churches
. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into
unions
with other churches, such as
Congregationalists
,
Lutherans
,
Anglicans
, and
Methodists
. Presbyterians in the United States came largely from
Scottish
,
Scots-Irish immigrants
, and also from
New England
communities that had originally been
Congregational
but changed because of an agreed-upon
Plan of Union of 1801
for frontier areas.
[6]
Presbyterian identity
[
edit
]
Early history
[
edit
]
Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the
Church of Scotland
, traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by
Saint Columba
, through the 6th-century
Hiberno-Scottish mission
.
[7]
[8]
[9]
Tracing their apostolic origin to
Saint John
,
[10]
[11]
the
Culdees
practiced
Christian monasticism
, a key feature of
Celtic Christianity
in the region, with a
presbyter
exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another."
[12]
[7]
[13]
The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the
See of Rome
and its monks used a unique style of
tonsure
.
[14]
The
Synod of Whitby
in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to the Roman date, not the Celtic date."
[15]
Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland,
[15]
certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church,
[16]
such as "the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship".
[17]
[18]
Development
[
edit
]
Presbyterian history is part of the
history of Christianity
, but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th-century
Protestant Reformation
. As the
Catholic Church
resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations.
Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian
John Calvin
, who is credited with the development of
Reformed theology
, and the work of
John Knox
, a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland. An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from
John a Lasco
, a Polish reformer, the founder of a
Stranger's Church
in London, based on the Geneva models.
[19]
The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland. In August 1560, the
Parliament of Scotland
adopted the
Scots Confession
as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December 1560, the
First Book of Discipline
was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as
presbyteries
.
[20]
In time, the Scots Confession would be supplanted by the
Westminster Confession of Faith
, and the
larger
and
shorter catechisms
, which were formulated by the
Westminster Assembly
between 1643 and 1649.
Characteristics
[
edit
]
Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by
doctrine
, institutional organisation (or "church order") and
worship
; often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in
Calvinism
. Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the
Westminster Confession of Faith
, which historically serves as an important confessional document ? second only to the Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible ? in Presbyterian churches.
Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect
salvation
.
Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church, often referred to as "
subordinate standards
".
Government
[
edit
]
Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as
courts
in some countries, as
boards
in others) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a
session
or
consistory
responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local
congregation
. Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues a call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member.
Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for the nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to the full congregation. Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders.
Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the
General Assembly
, although an intermediate level of a
synod
sometimes exists. This congregation /
presbytery
/
synod
/
general assembly
schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the
Church of Scotland
or the
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
; some bodies, such as the
Presbyterian Church in America
and the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland
, skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the Synod. The
Church of Scotland
abolished the Synod in 1993.
[21]
Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other
Reformed churches
.
[22]
Doctrine
[
edit
]
Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith", which have some level of authoritative status. However this is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions.
[24]
However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to
confessionalism
. The manner of
subscription
, or the degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard.
Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the
Westminster Confession of Faith
as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to the
Larger
and
Shorter
catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the
Westminster Standards
as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are
Calvinistic
in their doctrinal orientation. The
Presbyterian Church in Canada
retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting the historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read.
The Westminster Confession is "The principal
subordinate standard
of the
Church of Scotland
" but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and the struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g.
William Robertson Smith
). Some Presbyterian Churches, such as the
Free Church of Scotland
, have no such "
conscience
clause".
The
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
has adopted the
Book of Confessions
, which reflects the inclusion of other
Reformed confessions
in addition to the Westminster Standards. These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the
Nicene Creed
, the
Apostles' Creed
), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the
Scots Confession
, the
Heidelberg Catechism
, the
Second Helvetic Confession
), and 20th century documents (
The Theological Declaration of Barmen
,
Confession of 1967
and
A Brief Statement of Faith
).
The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document
Living Faith
(1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of the denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text.
Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the
Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland
.
John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of
New Testament
at
Princeton Seminary
between 1906 and 1929, led a revolt against modernist doctrine in his
Christianity and Liberalism
(1923) that critiqued theological modernism. He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language ? "Liberalism". This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one.
Worship and sacraments
[
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]
Worship
[
edit
]
Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to the British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the
Directory of Public Worship
, developed by the
Westminster Assembly
in the 1640s. This directory documented
Reformed worship
practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British
Puritans
, initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the
Scottish Parliament
, and became one of the foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere.
Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the
Regulative principle of worship
, which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden.
[25]
Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial
vestments
into worship. However, there is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the
Lord's Day
in keeping with
first-day Sabbatarianism
,
[26]
one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of
Lutheranism
or more of
Anglicanism
(especially where Scottish tradition is esteemed),
[
clarification needed
]
or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians). Most Presbyterian churches follow the traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent, Christmas, Ash Wednesday, Holy Week, Easter, Pentecost, etc. They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors, etc. Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other Presbyterians, however, such as the
Reformed Presbyterians
, would practice
a cappella
exclusive psalmody
, as well as eschew the celebration of holy days.
Among the
paleo-orthodox
and
emerging church
movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black
Geneva gown
to such vestments as the
alb
and
chasuble
, but also
cassock
and
surplice
(typically a full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the
Celtic
alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old
Gallican Rite
), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past.
Sacraments
[
edit
]
Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two
sacraments
:
- Baptism
, in which they
baptize infants
, as well as unbaptized adults by the
Aspersion
(sprinkling) or
Affusion
(pouring) method in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, rather than the
Immersion
method.
- The
Lord's Supper
(also known as Communion), in which Presbyterians believe in the Real Presence of Christ (pneumatic presence) in the spiritual sense, in the bread and wine through the Holy Spirit, as opposed to being locally present as in
transubstantiation
or
consubstantiation
.
Architecture
[
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]
Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by the puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church", which referred to the
members
, and the "meeting house", which was the building in which the church met. (Quakers still insist upon this distinction.) Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches". Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support the worship of God. The
decor
in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. But these were not the standard characteristics of the mainline Presbyterians. These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans.
In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as
Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago
,
Brick Presbyterian Church
in New York City,
Shadyside Presbyterian Church
in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others.
While Presbyterian churches historically reflected prevailing architectural trends, the 20th century saw a greater embrace of modern architectural styles, particularly the
modernist movement
characterized by clean lines, geometric shapes, and open floor plans.
[27]
Prominent examples include
Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church
in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with expansive, light-filled sanctuary and angular design elements. Similarly, the
National Presbyterian Church
in Washington, D.C., features a striking facade clad in limestone and punctuated by large windows, alongside abstract stained-glass windows. Both of these were designed by famed architect
Harold E. Wagoner
.
Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a
Catholic
church. Instead, there is a "communion table", usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by the chancel. There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians. In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on a table in the chancel. By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be located either at the entrance or near the chancel area. Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism. One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible. Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel. St. Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside. The image of Christ is more of a faint image, with a more modern design.
[28]
By region
[
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]
Europe
[
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]
Scotland
[
edit
]
John Knox
(1505?1572), a
Scot
who had spent time studying under
Calvin
in Geneva, returned to
Scotland
and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with
Calvinist
doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the
Protestant party
at the
Siege of Leith
the authority of the
Catholic Church
was abolished in favour of
Reformation
by the legislation of the
Scottish Reformation Parliament
in 1560. The Church was eventually organised by
Andrew Melville
along Presbyterian lines to become the national
Church of Scotland
.
King James VI and I
moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor,
Charles I
and
William Laud
, the
Archbishop of Canterbury
, attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the
Book of Common Prayer
. What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the
Solemn League and Covenant
. The
Covenanters
would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the
Parliamentarians
during the
English Civil War
. Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660,
Charles II
, despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church.
However, with the
Glorious Revolution
of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the
Acts of Union 1707
between Scotland and England guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the
United Kingdom parliament
allowing
patronage
led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers
seceded from the Church of Scotland
to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the
Relief Church
and the
Disruption of 1843
led to the formation of the
Free Church of Scotland
. Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the established Church of Scotland and the
United Free Church of Scotland
.
There are now ten Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today. These are, listed by number of congregations within Scotland: the
Church of Scotland
, the
Free Church of Scotland
, the
United Free Church of Scotland
, the
Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland
, the
Free Church of Scotland (Continuing)
, the
Associated Presbyterian Church
, the
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland
, the '
Didasko Presbytery'
,
[29]
the
International Presbyterian Church
and two congregations of the
Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster
. Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland.
Within Scotland the term '
kirk
' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland. Some of the values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland.
[30]
Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches
Splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches
|
|
England
[
edit
]
In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592.
Thomas Cartwright
is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at
Cambridge University
condemning the
episcopal
hierarchy of the
Elizabethan
Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop
John Whitgift
and his emigration abroad. Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the
Long Parliament
established Presbyterianism as the polity of the
Church of England
. Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to the
execution
of
Charles I
and the establishment of the republican
Commonwealth of England
meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England. The
Restoration of the monarchy
in 1660 brought the return of
Episcopal church government
in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church. In 1719 a major split, the
Salter's Hall controversy
, occurred; with the majority siding with
nontrinitarian
views.
Thomas Bradbury
published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the
dissenting ministers
who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity." By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become
Unitarian
in doctrine.
A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by
Scottish
immigrants to England in the 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and
Swallow Street
(London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at
Crown Court
, and
St Columba's
, Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. There is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland.
[31]
The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland also have a congregation in London,
[32]
as do the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster - along with five others in England.
[33]
In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the
Congregational Church in England and Wales
to form the
United Reformed Church
(URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire),
Aston Tirrold
(Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of
Stepney Meeting House
URC) ? these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former
Congregationalist
Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations,
St Columba's, Cambridge
(founded in 1879), and
St Columba's, Oxford
(founded as a chaplaincy by the PCofE and the
Church of Scotland
in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the
Church of Scotland
.
In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the
International Presbyterian Church
planted by evangelical theologian
Francis Schaeffer
of the
L'Abri Fellowship
in the 1970s - now with fifteen English-speaking congregations in England, and 6 Korean-speaking congregations. There is also the
Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales
founded in the North of England in the late 1980s.
Wales
[
edit
]
In
Wales
, Presbyterianism is represented by the
Presbyterian Church of Wales
, which was originally composed largely of
Calvinistic Methodists
who accepted Calvinist theology rather than the
Arminianism
of the Wesleyan Methodists. They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers. They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales.
Ireland
[
edit
]
Presbyterianism (
Irish
:
Preispiteireachas
,
Ulster Scots
:
Prisbytairinism
) is the largest Protestant denomination in
Northern Ireland
and the second largest on the island of Ireland (after the
Anglican
Church of Ireland
),
[34]
and was brought by Scottish
plantation settlers
to
Ulster
who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also
James I of Ireland and England
. An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the
Battle of the Boyne
in 1690.
[
citation needed
]
The Presbytery of Ulster was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with
Catholics
in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory
Penal Laws
until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the
Presbyterian Church in Ireland
, the
Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland
, the
Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster
, the
Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland
and the
Evangelical Presbyterian Church
.
France
[
edit
]
There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris:
The Scots Kirk
, which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities. It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the
Reformed Church of France
.
Italy
[
edit
]
The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV) is an Italian Protestant denomination.
The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches. As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches.
North America
[
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]
Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in the larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps".
United States
[
edit
]
Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York. The Church was organized by the Rev. Richard Denton.
In 1703 the first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established. In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would evolve into the
Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
in 1789. The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
? PC (USA) ? can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the
Presbyterian Church in America
(PCA), the
Orthodox Presbyterian Church
(OPC), the
Bible Presbyterian Church
(BPC), the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
(CPC), the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America
, the
Evangelical Presbyterian Church
(EPC), and the
Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians
(ECO).
Other Presbyterian bodies in the United States include the
Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America
(RPCNA), the
Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church
(ARP), the
Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States
(RPCUS), the
Reformed Presbyterian Church General Assembly
, the
Reformed Presbyterian Church ? Hanover Presbytery
, the
Covenant Presbyterian Church
, the Presbyterian Reformed Church, the Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States, the
Korean American Presbyterian Church
, and the
Free Presbyterian Church of North America
.
The territory within about a 50-mile (80 km) radius of
Charlotte, North Carolina
, is historically the greatest concentration of Presbyterianism in the Southern United States, while an almost identical geographic area around
Pittsburgh
, Pennsylvania, contains probably the largest number of Presbyterians in the entire nation.
The PC (USA), beginning with its predecessor bodies, has, in common with other so-called "mainline" Protestant denominations, experienced a significant decline in members in recent years. Some estimates have placed that loss at nearly half in the last forty years.
[35]
Presbyterian influence, especially through
Princeton theology
, can be traced in modern
Evangelicalism
. Balmer says that:
Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of
Pietism
, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of
Puritanism
. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain ? warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans ? even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism.
[36]
?
Randall Balmer, The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism (2002)
In the late 1800s, Presbyterian missionaries established a presence in what is now northern New Mexico. This provided an alternative to the Catholicism, which was brought to the area by the Spanish Conquistadors and had remained unchanged. The area experienced a "mini" reformation, in that many converts were made to Presbyterianism, prompting persecution. In some cases, the converts left towns and villages to establish their own neighboring villages. The arrival of the United States to the area prompted the Catholic church to modernize and make efforts at winning the converts back, many of which did return. However, there are still stalwart Presbyterians and Presbyterian churches in the area.
Historically, along with Lutherans and
Episcopalians
, Presbyterians tend to be considerably wealthier
[37]
and are better educated (having more
graduate
and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in United States;
[38]
a group known as
White Anglo-Saxon Protestants
(WASPs), they are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business,
[39]
law, and politics.
[40]
Canada
[
edit
]
In Canada, the largest Presbyterian denomination ? and indeed the largest Protestant denomination ? was the
Presbyterian Church in Canada
, formed in 1875 with the merger of four regional groups. In 1925, the
United Church of Canada
was formed by the majority of Presbyterians combining with the
Methodist Church
, Canada, and the
Congregational Union of Canada
. A sizable minority of Canadian Presbyterians, primarily in southern
Ontario
but also throughout the entire nation, withdrew, and reconstituted themselves as a non-concurring continuing Presbyterian body. They regained use of the original name in 1939.
Latin America
[
edit
]
Presbyterianism arrived in Latin America in the 19th century.
Mexico
[
edit
]
The biggest Presbyterian church is the
National Presbyterian Church in Mexico
(
Iglesia Nacional Presbiteriana de Mexico
), which has around 2,500,000 members and associates and 3000 congregations, but there are other small denominations like the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church in Mexico which was founded in 1875 by the Associate Reformed Church in North America. The Independent Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Reformed Church in Mexico, and the National Conservative Presbyterian Church in Mexico are existing churches in the Reformed tradition.
Brazil
[
edit
]
In Brazil, the
Presbyterian Church of Brazil
(
Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil
) totals approximately 1,011,300 members;
[41]
other Presbyterian churches (Independents, United, Conservatives, Renovated, etc.) in this nation have around 350,000 members. The
Renewed Presbyterian Church in Brazil
was influenced by the charismatic movement and has about 131 000 members as of 2011.
[42]
The
Conservative Presbyterian Church in Brazil
was founded in 1940 and has eight presbyteries.
[43]
The Fundamentalist Presbyterian church in Brazil was influenced by
Carl McIntire
and the US
Bible Presbyterian Church
and has around 1 800 members. The
Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil
was founded in 1903 by Rev. Eduardo Carlos Pereira, has 500 congregations and 75 000 members. The
United Presbyterian Church of Brazil
has around 4 000 members. There are also ethnic Korean Presbyterian churches in the country. The
Evangelical Reformed Churches in Brazil
has Dutch origin. The
Reformed Churches in Brazil
were recently founded by the
Canadian Reformed Churches
with the
Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated)
.
Congregational
churches present in the country are also part of the Calvinistic tradition in Latin America.
Other Latin American states
[
edit
]
There are probably more than four million members of Presbyterian churches in all of Latin America. Presbyterian churches are also present in Peru, Bolivia, Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Argentina, Honduras and others, but with few members. The Presbyterian Church in Belize has 17 churches and church plants and there is a Reformed Seminary founded in 2004. Some Latin Americans in North America are active in the
Presbyterian Cursillo Movement
.
Africa
[
edit
]
Presbyterianism arrived in Africa in the 19th century through the work of Scottish missionaries and founded churches such as
St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi
. The church has grown extensively and now has a presence in at least 23 countries in the region.
[44]
African Presbyterian churches often incorporate diaconal ministries, including social services, emergency relief, and the operation of mission hospitals. A number of partnerships exist between presbyteries in Africa and the PC(USA), including specific connections with Lesotho, Cameroon, Malawi, South Africa, Ghana and Zambia. For example, the Lackawanna Presbytery, located in Northeastern Pennsylvania, has a partnership with a presbytery in Ghana. Also the Southminster Presbyterian Church, located near Pittsburgh, has partnerships with churches in Malawi and Kenya. The Presbyterian Church of Nigeria, western Africa is also healthy and strong in mostly the southern states of this nation, strong density in the south-eastern states of this country. Beginning from Cross River state, the nearby coastal states, Rivers state, Lagos state to Ebonyi and Abia States.
Hope Waddel
's missionary expedition in the mid 19th century, and later
Mary Slessor
's stay in this coastal regions of the then British colony has brought about the beginning and the flourishing of this church in these areas.
Cameroon
The
Presbyterian Church in Cameroon
currently a member of reformed churches in Cameroon
Kenya
[
edit
]
The
Presbyterian Church of East Africa
, based in Kenya, is particularly strong, with 500 clergy and 4 million members.
[45]
Malawi
[
edit
]
The Reformed Presbyterian Church in Malawi has 150 congregations and 17 000?20 000 members
[
citation needed
]
. It was a mission of the Free Presbyterian church of Scotland. The Restored Reformed Church works with RPCM. Evangelical Presbyterian Church in Malawi is an existing small church. Part of the Presbyterian Church in Malawi and Zambia is known as CCAP, Church of Central Africa-Presbyterian. Often the churches there have one main congregation and a number of prayer houses develop. Education, health ministries, and worship and spiritual development are important.
Southern Africa
[
edit
]
Southern Africa is a major base of Reformed and Presbyterian Churches.
[
citation needed
]
Northern Africa
[
edit
]
In addition, there are a number of Presbyterian Churches in north Africa, the most known is the Nile Synod in Egypt and a recently founded synod for Sudan.
Asia
[
edit
]
Hong Kong
[
edit
]
The Hong Kong Council of the Church of Christ in China
(CCC) is a uniting church formed by
Presbyterians
and
Congregationalists
, which inherited the
Reformed tradition
.
HKCCCC
is also the only
mainline
Reformed church in Hong Kong.
Cumberland Presbyterian Church Yao Dao Secondary School
is a Presbyterian school in
Yuen Long
,
New Territories
. The
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
also have a church on the island of
Cheung Chau
. There are also
Korean Christians
resident in Hong Kong who are Presbyterians.
[
citation needed
]
South Korea
[
edit
]
Presbyterian Churches are the biggest and by far the most influential Protestant denominations in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country.
[47]
In South Korea there are 9 million Presbyterians, forming the majority of the 15 million Korean
Protestants
. In South Korea there are 100 different Presbyterian denominations.
[48]
Most of the Korean Presbyterian denominations share the same name in Korean, 大韓예수敎長老會 (literally means the Presbyterian Church of Korea or PCK), tracing its roots to the United Presbyterian Assembly before its long history of disputes and schisms. The Presbyterian schism began with the controversy in relation to the Japanese shrine worship enforced during the Japanese colonial period and the establishment of a minor division (Koryu-pa, 高麗派, later The Koshin Presbyterian Church in Korea, Koshin 拷訊) in 1952. And in 1953 the second schism happened when the theological orientation of the Chosun Seminary (later Hanshin University) founded in 1947 could not be tolerated in the PCK and another minor group (The Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea, Kijang, 機張) was separated. The last major schism had to do with the issue of whether the PCK should join the WCC. The controversy divided the PCK into two denominations, The Presbyterian Church of Korea (Tonghap, 統合) and The General Assembly of Presbyterian Church in Korea (Hapdong, 合同) in 1959. All major seminaries associated with each denomination claim heritage from the Pyung Yang Theological Seminary, therefore, not only Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary and Chongsin University which are related to PCK but also Hanshin University of PROK all celebrated the 100th class in 2007, 100 years from the first graduates of Pyung Yang Theological Seminary.
[49]
Korean Presbyterian denominations are active in evangelism and many of its missionaries are being sent overseas, being the second biggest missionary sender in the world after the United States. GMS, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of Presbyterian Churches of Korea, is the single largest Presbyterian missionary organization in Korea.
[50]
In addition there are many Korean-American Presbyterians in the United States, either with their own church sites or sharing space in pre-existing churches as is the case in Australia, New Zealand and even Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia with Korean immigration.
The Korean Presbyterian Church started through the mission of the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Australian Presbyterian theological tradition is central to the United States. But after independence, the 'Presbyterian Church in Korea (KoRyuPa)' advocated a Dutch
Reformed
position. In the 21st century, a new General Assembly of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church of Korea (Founder. Ha Seung-moo) in 2012 declared itself an authentic historical succession of Scottish Presbyterian John Knox.
Taiwan
[
edit
]
The
Presbyterian Church in Taiwan
(PCT) is by far the largest Protestant denomination in
Taiwan
, with some 238,372 members as of 2009 (including a majority of the island's
aborigines
).
English Presbyterian Missionary
James Laidlaw Maxwell
established the first Presbyterian church in
Tainan
in 1865. His colleague
George Leslie Mackay
, of the
Canadian Presbyterian Mission
, was active in
Tamsui
and north Taiwan from 1872 to 1901; he founded the island's first university and hospital, and created a written script for
Taiwanese Minnan
. The English and Canadian missions joined as the PCT in 1912. One of the few churches permitted to operate in Taiwan through the era of Japanese rule (1895?1945), the PCT experienced rapid growth during the era of
Kuomintang
-imposed martial law (1949?1987), in part due to its support for democracy, human rights, and
Taiwan independence
. Former
ROC
president
Lee Teng-hui
(in office 1988?2000) was a Presbyterian.
India
[
edit
]
In the mainly Christian Indian state of
Mizoram
, Presbyterianism is the largest of all
Christian denominations
. It was brought there by
missionaries
from
Wales
in 1897. Prior to Mizoram, Welsh Presbyterians started venturing into the northeast India through the
Khasi Hills
(now in the state of
Meghalaya
in India) and established Presbyterian churches all over the Khasi Hills from the 1840s onwards. Hence, there is a strong presence of Presbyterians in
Shillong
(the present capital of Meghalaya) and the areas adjoining it. The Welsh missionaries built their first church in
Sohra
(aka
Cherrapunji
) in 1846. The Presbyterian church in India was integrated in 1970 into the
United Church of Northern India
(originally formed in 1924). It is the largest Presbyterian denomination in India.
Oceania
[
edit
]
Australia
[
edit
]
In Australia, Presbyterianism is the fourth largest denomination of Christianity, with nearly 600,000 Australians claiming to be Presbyterian in the 2006 Commonwealth Census. Presbyterian churches were founded in each colony, some with links to the Church of Scotland and others to the Free Church. There were also congregations originating from United Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as a number founded by
John Dunmore Lang
. Most of these bodies merged between 1859 and 1870, and in 1901 formed a federal union called the
Presbyterian Church of Australia
but retaining their state assemblies. The
Presbyterian Church of Eastern Australia
representing the Free Church of Scotland tradition, and congregations in Victoria of the
Reformed Presbyterian Church
, originally from Ireland, are the other existing denominations dating from colonial times.
In 1977, about 70% of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, along with most of the
Congregational Union of Australia
and all the
Methodist Church of Australasia
, combined to form the
Uniting Church in Australia
.
[51]
The 30% who did not unite had various reasons for so acting, often cultural attachment but often conservative theological or social views. The permission for the ordination of women given in 1974 was rescinded in 1991 without affecting the two or three existing woman ministers
[
citation needed
]
. The approval of women elders given in the 1960s has been rescinded in all states except New South Wales, which has the largest membership
[
citation needed
]
. The theology of the church is now generally conservative and Reformed
[
citation needed
]
. A number of small Presbyterian denominations have arisen since the 1950s through migration or schism.
New Zealand
[
edit
]
In
New Zealand
, Presbyterian is the dominant denomination in Otago and Southland due largely to the rich
Scottish
and to a lesser extent
Ulster-Scots
heritage in the region. The area around Christchurch, Canterbury, is dominated philosophically by the
Anglican
denomination.
Originally there were two branches of Presbyterianism in New Zealand, the northern Presbyterian church which existed in the North Island and the parts of the South Island north of the
Waitaki River
, and the
Synod of Otago and Southland
, founded by
Free Church
settlers in southern South Island. The two churches merged in 1901, forming what is now the
Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand
.
In addition to the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand, there is also a more conservative Presbyterian church called
Grace Presbyterian Church of New Zealand
. Many of its members left the largely liberal PCANZ because they were seeking a more conservative church. It has 17 churches throughout New Zealand.
Vanuatu
[
edit
]
The
Presbyterian Church in Vanuatu
is the largest denomination in the country, with approximately one-third of the population of Vanuatu members of the church. The PCV was taken to Vanuatu by missionaries from Scotland. The PCV (Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu) is headed by a moderator with offices in
Port Vila
. The PCV is particularly strong in the provinces of
Tafea
,
Shefa
, and
Malampa
. The Province of
Sanma
is mainly Presbyterian with a strong Catholic minority in the
Francophone
areas of the province. There are some Presbyterian people, but no organised Presbyterian churches in
Penama
and
Torba
, both of which are traditionally Anglican. Vanuatu is the only country in the South Pacific with a significant Presbyterian heritage and membership. The PCV is a founding member of the
Vanuatu Christian Council
(VCC). The PCV runs many primary schools and Onesua secondary school. The church is strong in the rural villages.
See also
[
edit
]
Churches
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
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16 June
2013
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- ^
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2024
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Benedict, Philip
(2002).
Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism
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. p. xiv.
ISBN
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.
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ISBN
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a
b
Atkins, Gareth (1 August 2016).
Making and Remaking Saints in Nineteenth-Century Britain
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For many Presbyterian evangelicals in Scotland, the 'achievements of the Reformation represented the return to a native or national tradition, the rejection of an alien tyranny that had suppressed ... Scotland's true character as a Presbyterian nation enjoying the benefits of civil and religious liberty'. What they had in mind was the mission established by Columba at Iona and the subsequent spread of Christianity through the Culdees of the seventh to eleventh centuries. For Presbyterian scholars in the nineteenth century, these communities of clergy who differed in organisation and ethos from later monastic orders were further evidence of the similarity between early Christianity in Ireland and Scotland and later Presbyterianism. This interpretation of the character of the Celtic Church was an important aspect of Presbyterian identity in global terms. At the first meeting in 1877 of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System (later the World Alliance of Reformed Churches), Peter Lorimer (1812?79), a Presbyterian professor in London, noted 'that the early Church of St. Patrick, Columba, and Columbanus, was far more nearly allied in its fundamental principles of order and discipline to the Presbyterian than to the Episcopalian Churches of modern times'.
- ^
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The Pictorial History of Scotland
. p. 51.
The zealous Presbyterian maintains, that the church established by Columba was formed on a Presbyterian model, and that it recognized the great principle of clerical equality.
- ^
Bradley, Ian (24 July 2013).
Columba
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ISBN
978-1-84952-272-4
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Columba has found favour with enthusiasts for all things Celtic and with those who have seen him as establishing a proto-Presbyterian church clearly distinguishable from the episcopally governed church favoured by Rome-educated Bishop Ninian.
- ^
Dickens-Lewis, W.F. (1920). "Apostolicity of Presbyterianism: Ancient Culdeeism and Modern Presbyterianism".
The Presbyterian Magazine
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26
(1?7).
Presbyterian Church (USA)
: 529.
The Culdees who claimed at the Synod of Whitby apostolic descent from St. John, as against the Romish claim of the authority of St. Peter, retired into Scotland.
- ^
Thomson, Thomas (1896).
A History of the Scottish People from the Earliest Times
. Blackie. p.
141
.
...for the primitive apostolic church which St. John had established in the East and Columba transported to our shores. Thus the days of Culdeeism were numbered, and she was now awaiting the martyrs doom.
- ^
Mackay, John; Mackay, Annie Maclean Sharp (1902).
The Celtic Monthly
. Archibald Sinclair. p. 236.
- ^
Hannrachain, T. O'; Armstrong, R.; hAnnrachain, Tadhg O (30 July 2014).
Christianities in the Early Modern Celtic World
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ISBN
978-1-137-30635-7
.
Presbyterians after 1690 gave yet more play to 'Culdeeism', a reading of the past wherein 'culdees' (derived from celi de) were presented as upholding a native, collegiate, proto presbyterian church government uncontaminated by bishops.
- ^
Rankin, James (1884).
The Young Churchman: lessons on the Creed, the Commandments, the means of grace, and the Church
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For seven whole centuries (400?1100 A.D.) there existed in Scotland a genuine Celtic Church, apparently of Greek origin, and in close connection with both Ireland and Wales. In this Celtic Church no Pope was recognized, and no prelatical of diocesan bishops existed. Their bishops were of the primitive New Testament style?presbyter-bishops. Easter was kept at a different time from that of Rome. The tonsure of the monks was not, like that of Rome, on the crown, but across the forehead from ear to ear. The monastic system of the Celtic Church was extremely simple?small communities of twelve men were presided over by an abbot (kindred to the Patriarch title of the Greeks), who took precedence of the humble parochial bishops.
- ^
a
b
Sawyers, June Skinner (1999).
Maverick Guide to Scotland
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ISBN
978-1-4556-0866-9
.
The Celtic Church evolved separated from the Roman Catholic Church. The Celtic Church was primarily monastic, and the monasteries were administered by an abbot. Not as organized as the church in Rome, it was a much looser institution. The Celtic Church celebrated Easter on a different date from the Roman, too. Life within the Celtic Church tended to be ascetic. Education was an important element, as was passion for spreading the word, that is, evangelism. The Celtic brothers led a simple life in simply constructed buildings. The churches and monastic buildings were usually made of wood and wattle and had thatched roofs. After the death of St. Columba in A.D. 597, the autonomy of the Celtic Church did not last long. The Synod of Whitby in 664 decided, once and for all, that Easter would be celebrated according to the Roman date, not the Celtic date. This was the beginning of the end for the Celtic Church.
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ISBN
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After the Synod of Whitby in about 664, the Roman tradition was imposed on the whole Church, though remnants of the Celtic tradition lingered in practice.
- ^
Bowden, John Stephen (2005).
Encyclopedia of Christianity
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ISBN
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.
A distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship is the singing of metrical psalms, many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes. These verse psalms have been exported to Africa, North America and other parts of the world where Presbyterian Scots missionaries or Emigres have been influential.
- ^
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Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development
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ISBN
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.
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John Calvin and John a Lasco on Church Order
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[
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Sources
[
edit
]
- Stewart J Brown.
The National Churches of England, Ireland, and Scotland, 1801?46
(2001)
- William the Baptist
by James M. Chaney (Reformed Presbyterian perspective on baptism and infant baptism)
- Jay E. Adams
.
The Meaning and Mode of Baptism
Thomas Shepard. (1975) (Reformed Presbyterian perspective on
Aspersion
and
Affusion
)
- The Church Membership of Children, and Their Right to Baptism
Archived
11 November 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
(1662) (Reformed Presbyterian perspective on infants' right to church membership)
- William Henry Foote.
Sketches of North Carolina, Historical and Biographical...
(1846)
Archived
4 February 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
? full-text history of early North Carolina and its Presbyterian churches
- Andrew Lang (1905).
John Knox and the Reformation
. Longmans, Green, and Company.
- William Klempa, ed.
The Burning Bush and a Few Acres of Snow: The Presbyterian Contribution to Canadian Life and Culture
(1994)
- Marsden, George M.
The Evangelical Mind and the New School Presbyterian Experience
(1970)
- Mark A Noll.
Princeton And The Republic, 1768?1822
(2004)
- Frank Joseph Smith,
The History of the Presbyterian Church in America
, Reformation Education Foundation, Manassas, VA 1985
- William Warren Sweet,
Religion on the American Frontier, 1783?1840, vol. 2, The Presbyterians
(1936), primary sources
- Ernest Trice Thompson.
Presbyterians in the South
vol 1: to 1860; Vol 2: 1861?1890; Vol 3: 1890?1972. (1963?1973)
- Leonard J. Trinterud,
The Forming of an American Tradition: A Re-examination of Colonial Presbyterianism
(1949)
- Encyclopedia of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America
(1884)
- St.Andrews Prebystarian church in Lahore, Pakistan.
Church Website
Archived
1 April 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
- "Presbyterian 101 ? Mission and Ministry ? GAMC"
. Pcusa.org. Archived from
the original
on 2 September 2009
. Retrieved
7 August
2011
.
- "History and Architecture :: East Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, PA :: "The Cathedral of Hope"
"
. Cathedralofhope.org. Archived from
the original
on 25 July 2011
. Retrieved
7 August
2011
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Davies, A. Mervyn (1965).
Presbyterian Heritage
.
- Feldmeth, Nathan P.; Fortson, S. Donald III; Rosell, Garth M.; Stewart, Kenneth J. (2022).
Reformed and Evangelical across Four Centuries: The Presbyterian Story in America
. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
- Lingle, Walter L.; Kuykendall, John W. (1978).
Presbyterians: Their History and Beliefs
(4th rev. ed.). Atlanta: Westminster John Knox Press.
- Smylie, James H. (1996).
A Brief History of the Presbyterians
. Louisville, KY: Geneva Press.
ISBN
978-0-664-50001-6
.
External links
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