Political system of Peru
The
politics of the Republic of Peru
takes place in a framework of a
unitary
semi-presidential
representative democratic
republic
,
[1]
[2]
whereby the
President of Peru
is both
head of state
and
head of government
, and of a
pluriform
multi-party system
.
Executive power
is exercised by the President and the Government.
Legislative power
is vested in both the
Government
and the
Congress
. The
Judiciary
is independent of the executive and the legislature. The
Economist Intelligence Unit
rated Peru a "
hybrid regime
" in 2022.
[3]
Traditionally weak
political parties
saw their support collapse further in Peru since 2000, paving the way for the rise of personalist leaderships.
[4]
[5]
The political parties in the
congress of Peru
are, according to political scientist
Lucia Dammert
, "agglomerations of individual and group interests more than solid and representative parties".
[5]
The historian
Antonio Zapata
describes Peru as a "
right-wing
country"; the only
left-wing
government in contemporary history until the election of
Pedro Castillo
in 2021 was that of
Juan Velasco Alvarado
(1968-1975), author of an agrarian reform and the nationalization of strategic sectors.
[6]
Peru is also one of the most
socially conservative
nations in
Latin America
.
[7]
Currently, almost all major media and political parties in the country are in favour of economic liberalism.
[6]
Those opposed to the
neoliberal
status quo
or involved in left-wing politics are often targeted with
fear mongering
attacks called
terruqueos
, where individuals or groups are associated with
terrorists
involved with the
internal conflict in Peru
.
[8]
[9]
History
[
edit
]
The weakness of
political parties
in Peruvian politics has been recognized throughout the nation's history, with competing leaders fighting for power following the collapse of the
Spanish Empire's
Viceroyalty of Peru
.
[10]
[11]
[4]
The
Peruvian War of Independence
saw
aristocrats
with land and wealthy
merchants
cooperate to fight the Spanish Empire, though the aristocrats would later obtain greater power and lead an
oligarchy
headed by
caudillos
that defended the existing
feudalist
haciendas
.
[4]
During the time of the
Chincha Islands War
,
guano
extraction in Peru led to the rise of an even wealthier aristocracy that established a
plutocracy
.
[4]
Anarchist
politician
Manuel Gonzalez Prada
accurately detailed that parties in Peru shortly after the
War of the Pacific
were controlled by a wealthy oligarchy that used candidate-based political parties to control economic interests; a practice that continues to the present day.
[4]
This oligarchy was supported by the
Catholic Church
, which would ignore inequalities in Peru and instead assist governments with appeasing the impoverished majority.
[4]
At this time, the
armed forces of Peru
were seen by the public as ensuring territorial sovereignty and order, granting military leaders the ability to blame political parties and justify
coup d'etats
against established leaders of the nation who were facing socioeconomic difficulties.
[11]
This led to a pattern throughout Peru's political history of an elected leader drafting and proposing a policy while the military would later overthrow the said leader, adopting and implementing the elected official's proposals.
[11]
Combatting ideologies of
indigenismo
of the majority and the elite holding
Europhile
values would also arise at the end of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century.
[4]
Following industrialization and
World War I
, economic expansion in Peru resulted with rural groups demanding more interaction with the wealthy urban areas and embracing
indigenismo
.
[4]
Labor and student movements ? especially the
anarcho-syndicalist
Peruvian Regional Workers' Federation
? would arise at this time while nearly overtaking the existing oligarchical structure, though the coup and subsequent dictatorship of
Augusto B. Leguia
for the next decade would quash hopes for further progress.
[4]
During the Leguia dictatorship emerged two political thinkers inspired by Gonzalez Prada;
Jose Carlos Mariategui
and
Victor Raul Haya de la Torre
.
[4]
In 1924 from
Mexico
, university reform leaders in Peru who had been forced into exile by the government founded the
American People's Revolutionary Alliance
, which had a major influence on the country's political life. APRA is thus largely a political expression of the university reform and workers' struggles of the years 1918?1920. The movement draws its influences from the
Mexican Revolution
and its
1917 Constitution
? particularly on issues of
agrarianism
and
indigenism
? and to a lesser extent from the
Russian Revolution
. Its leader,
Haya de la Torre
, declares that APRA as a "Marxist interpretation of the American reality", it nevertheless moves away from it on the question of class struggle and on the importance given to the struggle for the political unity of Latin America.
[12]
In 1928, the Peruvian Socialist Party was founded, notably under the leadership of Jose Carlos Mariategui, himself a spectator of the European socialist movements who maintained relationships with the
Communist Party of Italy
, including the leadership of
Palmiro Togliatti
and
Antonio Gramsci
. Shortly afterwards in 1929, the party created the General Confederation of Workers. Following the assassination of President
Luis Miguel Sanchez Cerro
in 1933 by an Aprista, APRA was persecuted in Peru. Persecution of APRA persisted until about 1956 when it became allied with the elite in Peru.
[4]
Following
World War II
, the military's ideology began to distance itself from the wealthy elite when the Center of High Military Studies began to promote studies of Manuel Gonzalez Prada and Jose Carlos Mariategui, creating officers that viewed the elite as sacrificing national sovereignty in order to acquire foreign capital and resulted with an undeveloped, reliant nation.
[4]
Thus in 1963,
Fernando Belaunde Terry
was elected president and proposed the first pro-worker and peasant policies for Peru, though he was overthrown by General
Juan Velasco Alvarado
in 1968, who implemented Belaunde's policies in his own unique manner.
[11]
The
Shining Path
guerilla group would also emerge in 1968 led by
Abimael Guzman
, beginning the
internal conflict in Peru
between the state and Shining Path forces. During the
Lost Decade
of the 1980s and internal conflict, political parties became weaker once again.
[10]
[11]
Angered by President
Alan Garcia
's inability to combat the crises in the nation, the armed forces began planning a coup to establish a
neoliberal
government in the late 1980s with
Plan Verde
.
[13]
[14]
Peruvians shifted their support for
authoritarian
leader
Alberto Fujimori
, who was supported by the military following his win in the
1990 Peruvian general election
.
[10]
[11]
Fujimori essentially adopted the policies outlined in the military's Plan Verde and turned Peru into a neoliberal nation.
[14]
[15]
Fujimori's civil-military government established sentiments in Peru that politics were slower than brute military force while governing.
[11]
The
1979 Constitution
was changed after the
Fujimori's self-coup
where the president dissolved the Congress and established the new 1993 Constitution. One of the changes to the 1979 Constitution was the possibility of the president's immediate re-election (Article 112) which made possible the re-election of Fujimori in the following years. After Fujimori's resignation, the transitional government of
Valentin Paniagua
changed Article 112 and called for
new elections in 2001
where
Alejandro Toledo
was elected.
However, following the fall of the Fujimori government, Peru still lacked strong political parties, leaving the nation vulnerable to populist outsider politicians lacking experience.
[10]
Regional parties then grew to become more popular as foreign investment increased during the 21st century, though their service to the elites sowed public distrust.
[11]
On 28 July 2021, left-wing candidate
Pedro Castillo
was sworn in as the new
President of Peru
after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off
election
.
[16]
On 7 December 2022, the congress removed President Castillo from office. He was replaced by Vice President
Dina Boluarte
, the country's first female president.
[17]
Allegations of corruption in politics
[
edit
]
Exceptionally many
Presidents of Peru
have been ousted from office or imprisoned on
allegations of corruption
over the past three decades.
Alberto Fujimori
is serving a 25-year sentence in prison for commanding
death squads
that killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990-2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president
Alan Garcia
(1985-1990 and 2006?2011) committed suicide in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in
Odebrecht bribery
scheme. Former president
Alejandro Toledo
is accused of allegedly receiving bribe from Brazilian construction firm
Odebrecht
during his government (2001-2006). Former president
Ollanta Humala
(2011-2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribe from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor
Pedro Pablo Kuczynski
(2016-2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president
Martin Vizcarra
(2018-2020) was ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.
[18]
[19]
Executive branch
[
edit
]
Under the current constitution, the president is the
head of state
and
government
. The president is elected for a five-year term and may not immediately be re-elected.
[20]
All citizens above the age of eighteen are entitled and in fact
compelled
to vote. The first and second vice presidents also are popularly elected but have no constitutional functions unless the president is unable to discharge his duties.
The President appoints the
Prime Minister
(Primer Ministro)
and the
Council of Ministers
(Consejo de Ministros,
or Cabinet), which is individually and collectively responsible both to the president and the legislature.
[1]
[2]
All presidential decree laws or draft bills sent to Congress must be approved by the Council of Ministers.
Legislative branch
[
edit
]
The legislative branch consists of a unicameral
Congress
(
Congreso
) of 130 members. elected for a five-year term by
proportional representation
In addition to passing laws, Congress ratifies treaties, authorizes government loans, and approves the government budget. The president has the power to block legislation with which the executive branch does not agree.
Political parties and elections
[
edit
]
Like other Latin American nations, political parties in Peru since its revolutionary period have been weak and centered around a candidate instead of policy, with parties selecting a candidate with the most wealth that they can bring to support the organization.
[10]
[11]
[4]
The lack of popular political parties led to the rise of
populist
authoritarian leaders.
[10]
With the growth of media and a large informal population, Peru has continued to ignore the need for political parties.
[10]
Political parties exist mainly through conflict, holding a goal to damage opposing parties while ignoring policy.
[11]
Presidential election
[
edit
]
The first round was held on 11 April.
[21]
[22]
The first exit polls published indicated that underdog nominee
Pedro Castillo
of
Free Peru
had placed first in the first round of voting with approximately 16.1% of the vote, with
Hernando de Soto
and
Keiko Fujimori
tying with 11.9% each.
[22]
Yonhy Lescano
,
Rafael Lopez Aliaga
,
Veronika Mendoza
, and
George Forsyth
followed, with each receiving 11.0%, 10.5%, 8.8%, and 6.4%, respectively.
[22]
Cesar Acuna
and
Daniel Urresti
received 5.8% and 5.0%, respectively, while the rest of the nominees attained less than 3% of the popular vote.
[23]
[24]
In the second round, Castillo defeated Fujimori by just 44,263 votes, winning by 50.13% to 49.87%. Castillo was officially designated as president-elect of Peru on 19 July 2021, a little over a week before he was to be inaugurated.
[25]
Candidate
| Party
| First round
| Second round
|
---|
Votes
| %
| Votes
| %
|
---|
| Pedro Castillo
| Free Peru
| 2,724,752
| 18.92
| 8,836,380
| 50.13
|
| Keiko Fujimori
| Popular Force
| 1,930,762
| 13.41
| 8,792,117
| 49.87
|
| Rafael Lopez Aliaga
| Popular Renewal
| 1,692,279
| 11.75
| |
| Hernando de Soto
| Go on Country ? Social Integration Party
| 1,674,201
| 11.63
| |
| Yonhy Lescano
| Popular Action
| 1,306,288
| 9.07
| |
| Veronika Mendoza
| Together for Peru
| 1,132,577
| 7.86
| |
| Cesar Acuna
| Alliance for Progress
| 867,025
| 6.02
| |
| George Forsyth
| National Victory
| 814,516
| 5.66
| |
| Daniel Urresti
| Podemos Peru
| 812,721
| 5.64
| |
| Julio Guzman
| Purple Party
| 325,608
| 2.26
| |
| Alberto Beingolea
| Christian People's Party
| 286,447
| 1.99
| |
| Daniel Salaverry
| We Are Peru
| 240,234
| 1.67
| |
| Ollanta Humala
| Peruvian Nationalist Party
| 230,831
| 1.60
| |
| Jose Vega
| Union for Peru
| 101,267
| 0.70
| |
| Ciro Galvez
| National United Renaissance
| 89,376
| 0.62
| |
| Marco Arana
| Broad Front
| 65,300
| 0.45
| |
| Rafael Santos
[
es
]
| Peru Secure Homeland
| 55,644
| 0.39
| |
| Andres Alcantara
[
es
]
| Direct Democracy
| 50,802
| 0.35
| |
Total
| 14,400,630
| 100.00
| 17,628,497
| 100.00
|
|
Valid votes
| 14,400,630
| 81.30
| 17,628,497
| 93.49
|
---|
Invalid votes
| 1,123,027
| 6.34
| 1,106,816
| 5.87
|
---|
Blank votes
| 2,190,059
| 12.36
| 121,489
| 0.64
|
---|
Total votes
| 17,713,716
| 100.00
| 18,856,802
| 100.00
|
---|
Registered voters/turnout
| 25,287,954
| 70.05
| 25,287,954
| 74.57
|
---|
Source:
ONPE
,
ONPE
|
By department
[
edit
]
2021 Peruvian presidential election results ? First round by Department
Department
|
Castillo
Free Peru
|
Fujimori
Popular Force
|
Lopez Aliaga
Popular Renewal
|
De Soto
Go on Country
|
Lescano
Popular Action
|
Mendoza
Together for Peru
|
Other
candidates
|
Valid
votes
|
Turnout
|
Votes
|
%
|
Votes
|
%
|
Votes
|
%
|
Votes
|
%
|
Votes
|
%
|
Votes
|
%
|
Votes
|
%
|
Amazonas
|
34,411
|
26.1%
|
17,805
|
13.5%
|
8,269
|
6.3%
|
4,433
|
3.4%
|
12,698
|
9.6%
|
8,887
|
6.7%
|
45,557
|
34.5%
|
132,060
|
60.1%
|
Ancash
|
110,620
|
23.4%
|
67,394
|
14.3%
|
42,312
|
9.0%
|
34,562
|
7.3%
|
38,911
|
8.2%
|
39,786
|
8.4%
|
138,200
|
29.3%
|
471,785
|
69.3%
|
Apurimac
|
88,812
|
53.4%
|
10,879
|
6.5%
|
7,768
|
4.7%
|
6,531
|
3.9%
|
15,649
|
9.4%
|
15,368
|
9.2%
|
21,179
|
12.7%
|
166,186
|
69.4%
|
Arequipa
|
256,224
|
32.2%
|
40,216
|
5.1%
|
71,053
|
8.9%
|
148,793
|
18.7%
|
88,708
|
11.1%
|
55,269
|
6.9%
|
135,448
|
17.0%
|
795,711
|
78.8%
|
Ayacucho
|
130,224
|
52.0%
|
17,751
|
7.1%
|
11,490
|
4.6%
|
8,995
|
3.6%
|
20,315
|
8.1%
|
24,506
|
9.8%
|
37,269
|
14.9%
|
250,550
|
68.6%
|
Cajamarca
|
232,418
|
44.9%
|
54,962
|
10.6%
|
31,129
|
6.0%
|
25,156
|
4.9%
|
38,677
|
7.5%
|
29,746
|
5.7%
|
105,374
|
20.4%
|
517,462
|
62.6%
|
Callao
|
33,750
|
6.4%
|
79,699
|
15.2%
|
78,066
|
14.9%
|
78,920
|
15.0%
|
34,965
|
6.7%
|
38,233
|
7.3%
|
181,634
|
34.6%
|
525,267
|
75.2%
|
Cusco
|
232,178
|
38.2%
|
27,132
|
4.5%
|
29,618
|
4.9%
|
40,423
|
6.6%
|
60,659
|
10.0%
|
123,397
|
20.3%
|
94,626
|
15.6%
|
608,033
|
73.5%
|
Huancavelica
|
79,895
|
54.2%
|
8,449
|
5.7%
|
5,060
|
3.4%
|
4,591
|
3.1%
|
16,727
|
11.3%
|
10,091
|
6.8%
|
22,574
|
15.3%
|
147,387
|
67.6%
|
Huanuco
|
110,978
|
37.6%
|
32,827
|
11.1%
|
33,787
|
11.4%
|
15,822
|
5.4%
|
22,565
|
7.6%
|
15,556
|
5.3%
|
63,688
|
21.6%
|
295,223
|
68.3%
|
Ica
|
56,597
|
14.0%
|
62,055
|
15.3%
|
46,098
|
11.4%
|
39,929
|
9.8%
|
39,461
|
9.7%
|
30,602
|
7.5%
|
130,887
|
32.3%
|
405,629
|
76.0%
|
Junin
|
131,438
|
22.9%
|
80,057
|
13.9%
|
52,599
|
9.2%
|
54,124
|
9.4%
|
66,214
|
11.5%
|
52,270
|
9.1%
|
137,396
|
23.9%
|
574,098
|
71.9%
|
La Libertad
|
90,078
|
11.5%
|
131,441
|
16.8%
|
95,765
|
12.2%
|
84,444
|
10.8%
|
47,218
|
6.0%
|
37,372
|
4.8%
|
296,598
|
37.9%
|
782,916
|
68.9%
|
Lambayeque
|
73,279
|
12.9%
|
121,263
|
21.4%
|
86,126
|
15.2%
|
50,087
|
8.8%
|
51,467
|
9.1%
|
28,866
|
5.1%
|
155,480
|
27.4%
|
566,568
|
71.4%
|
Lima
|
416,537
|
7.8%
|
753,785
|
14.2%
|
869,950
|
16.4%
|
870,582
|
16.4%
|
362,668
|
6.8%
|
431,425
|
8.1%
|
1,602,623
|
30.2%
|
5,307,570
|
74.6%
|
Loreto
|
15,432
|
4.9%
|
51,900
|
16.6%
|
16,378
|
5.3%
|
18,816
|
6.0%
|
34,773
|
11.2%
|
19,502
|
6.3%
|
155,025
|
49.7%
|
311,826
|
61.0%
|
Madre de Dios
|
23,945
|
37.1%
|
7,278
|
11.3%
|
4,041
|
6.3%
|
3,996
|
6.2%
|
6,601
|
10.2%
|
4,372
|
6.8%
|
14,341
|
22.2%
|
64,574
|
71.1%
|
Moquegua
|
33,665
|
34.4%
|
4,617
|
4.7%
|
6,832
|
7.0%
|
10,183
|
10.4%
|
15,412
|
15.7%
|
7,190
|
7.3%
|
20,027
|
20.5%
|
97,926
|
77.2%
|
Pasco
|
34,187
|
34.2%
|
12,607
|
12.6%
|
8,009
|
8.0%
|
5,102
|
5.1%
|
11,871
|
11.9%
|
6,896
|
6.9%
|
21,324
|
21.3%
|
99,996
|
63.6%
|
Piura
|
70,968
|
10.1%
|
173,891
|
24.8%
|
68,316
|
9.8%
|
63,842
|
9.1%
|
51,223
|
7.3%
|
44,576
|
6.4%
|
227,714
|
32.5%
|
700,530
|
66.8%
|
Puno
|
292,218
|
47.5%
|
17,514
|
2.8%
|
15,918
|
2.6%
|
21,665
|
3.5%
|
175,712
|
28.5%
|
35,484
|
5.8%
|
57,010
|
9.3%
|
615,521
|
81.9%
|
San Martin
|
67,000
|
21.4%
|
46,699
|
14.9%
|
26,561
|
8.5%
|
21,825
|
7.0%
|
31,498
|
10.0%
|
17,122
|
5.5%
|
102,765
|
32.8%
|
313,470
|
69.2%
|
Tacna
|
64,521
|
33.2%
|
9,363
|
4.8%
|
17,842
|
9.2%
|
21,000
|
10.8%
|
28,696
|
14.8%
|
14,068
|
7.2%
|
38,779
|
20.0%
|
194,269
|
77.8%
|
Tumbes
|
7,613
|
7.7%
|
36,403
|
37.1%
|
8,799
|
9.0%
|
7,123
|
7.3%
|
7,046
|
7.2%
|
5,242
|
5.3%
|
26,015
|
26.5%
|
98,241
|
74.6%
|
Ucayali
|
26,339
|
14.0%
|
40,510
|
21.5%
|
14,981
|
8.0%
|
11,124
|
5.9%
|
14,359
|
7.6%
|
15,092
|
8.0%
|
65,965
|
35.0%
|
188,370
|
66.3%
|
Peruvians Abroad
|
10,602
|
6.6%
|
22,887
|
14.1%
|
34,767
|
21.5%
|
21,552
|
13.3%
|
11,617
|
7.2%
|
21,185
|
13.1%
|
39,146
|
24.2%
|
161,756
|
22.8%
|
Total
|
2,723,929
|
18.9%
|
1,929,384
|
13.4%
|
1,691,534
|
11.8%
|
1,673,620
|
11.6%
|
1,305,710
|
9.1%
|
1,132,103
|
7.9%
|
3,936,644
|
27.4%
|
14,392,924
|
70.0%
|
Source: ONPE (100% counted)
|
Parliamentary elections
[
edit
]
The
Popular Action
, the largest party in the previous legislature, lost some of its seats, and previous parliamentary parties like
Union for Peru
(UPP) and the
Broad Front
(FA) had their worst results ever, attaining no representation.
[26]
The
Peruvian Nationalist Party
of former President
Ollanta Humala
and
National Victory
of
George Forsyth
(who led polling for the presidential election earlier in the year) failed to win seats as well.
[26]
New or previously minor parties such as
Free Peru
,
Go on Country
and
Together for Peru
and
Popular Renewal
, the successor of
National Solidarity
, had good results, with Free Peru becoming the largest party in Congress.
[26]
Contigo
, the successor to former president
Pedro Pablo Kuczynski
's
Peruvians for Change
party, failed to win a seat once again and received less than 1% of the vote.
[26]
On 26 July, two days before Castillo was sworn in as Peru's President, an opposition alliance led by Popular Action member
Maria del Carmen Alva
successfully negotiated an agreement to gain control of Peru's Congress.
[27]
|
---|
Party
| Votes
| %
| Seats
| +/?
|
---|
| Free Peru
| 1,724,354
| 13.41
| 37
| +37
|
| Popular Force
| 1,457,694
| 11.34
| 24
| +9
|
| Popular Renewal
| 1,199,705
| 9.33
| 13
| +13
|
| Popular Action
| 1,159,734
| 9.02
| 16
| ?9
|
| Alliance for Progress
| 969,726
| 7.54
| 15
| ?7
|
| Go on Country ? Social Integration Party
| 969,092
| 7.54
| 7
| +7
|
| Together for Peru
| 847,596
| 6.59
| 5
| +5
|
| We Are Peru
| 788,522
| 6.13
| 5
| ?6
|
| Podemos Peru
| 750,262
| 5.83
| 5
| ?6
|
| Purple Party
| 697,307
| 5.42
| 3
| ?6
|
| National Victory
| 638,289
| 4.96
| 0
| New
|
| Agricultural People's Front of Peru
| 589,018
| 4.58
| 0
| ?15
|
| Union for Peru
| 266,349
| 2.07
| 0
| ?13
|
| Christian People's Party
| 212,820
| 1.65
| 0
| 0
|
| Peruvian Nationalist Party
| 195,538
| 1.52
| 0
| New
|
| Broad Front
| 135,104
| 1.05
| 0
| ?9
|
| Direct Democracy
| 100,033
| 0.78
| 0
| 0
|
| National United Renaissance
| 97,540
| 0.76
| 0
| 0
|
| Peru Secure Homeland
| 54,859
| 0.43
| 0
| 0
|
| Contigo
| 5,787
| 0.05
| 0
| 0
|
Total
| 12,859,329
| 100.00
| 130
| 0
|
|
Valid votes
| 12,859,329
| 72.56
| |
---|
Invalid votes
| 2,737,099
| 15.44
| |
---|
Blank votes
| 2,126,712
| 12.00
| |
---|
Total votes
| 17,723,140
| 100.00
| |
---|
Registered voters/turnout
| 25,287,954
| 70.09
| |
---|
Source:
ONPE
,
Ojo Publico
|
Judicial branch
[
edit
]
The judicial branch of government is headed by a 16-member
Supreme Court
seated in
Lima
. The National Council of the Judiciary appoints judges to this court.
The
Constitutional Court
(Tribunal Constitucional)
interprets the constitution on matters of individual rights. Superior courts in regional capitals review appeals from decisions by lower courts. Courts of first instance are located in provincial capitals and are divided into civil, penal, and special chambers. The judiciary has created several temporary specialized courts in an attempt to reduce the large backlog of cases pending final court action.
Peru's legal system is based on civil law system. Peru has not accepted compulsory
ICJ
jurisdiction. In 1996 a
human rights
ombudsman
's office
(defensor del pueblo)
was created to address
human rights
issues.
Administrative divisions
[
edit
]
Peru's territory, according to the Regionalization Law which was passed on 18 November 2002, is divided into 25
regions
(regiones). These regions are subdivided into
provinces
, which are composed of
districts
. There are a total of 180 provinces and 1747 districts in Peru.
Lima Province
is
not
part of any political region.
Organizations
[
edit
]
Armed groups
[
edit
]
Leftist guerrilla groups include
Shining Path
, the
Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement
(MRTA). Both Shining Path and MRTA are considered
terrorist
organizations.
Regional groups
[
edit
]
Regional groups representing peasant and indigenous groups exist in the outlying provinces, often working to promote autonomy.
[28]
Groups promoting autonomy agreements with larger states possibly existed since the
Inca Empire
and such sentiments of independence have continued among local communities to current times.
[28]
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
[
edit
]
In the early 1970s and 1980s many grass-roots organizations emerged in Peru. They were concerned with problems of local people and poverty reduction. Solaris Peru, Traperos de Emus San Agustin, APRODE PERU, Caritas del Peru, and the American organisation CARE, with their Peruvian location, fight to address poverty in their communities with different approaches, depending on the organisation.
[
citation needed
]
In 2000 they played an important role in the
decentralisation
process. Their hope was that power would be divided clearly between national and local governments and the latter would be able to address social justice and the concerns of local people better than the national government could. Some
NGO
-members even became part of local governments. There is debate extent to which this engagement in politics contributes to the attainment of their original goals.
[29]
International policy
[
edit
]
Peru or Peruvian organizations participate in the following international organizations:
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005).
"Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns"
(PDF)
.
Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 19 August 2008
. Retrieved
31 August
2017
.
- ^
a
b
Shugart, Matthew Søberg
(December 2005).
"Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns"
(PDF)
.
French Politics
.
3
(3): 323?351.
doi
:
10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087
.
ISSN
1476-3427
.
OCLC
6895745903
. Retrieved
31 August
2017
.
Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).
- ^
"Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine"
(PDF)
.
Economist Intelligence Unit
. 2023
. Retrieved
2023-02-09
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
Gorman, Stephen M. (September 1980). "The Economic and Social Foundations of Elite Power in Peru: A Review of the Literature".
Social and Economic Studies
.
29
(2/3).
University of the West Indies
: 292?319.
- ^
a
b
Vargas, Felipe (November 11, 2020).
"Atomizacion de fuerzas, caudillismos e inestabilidad politica: Como entender el presente del Congreso de Peru"
.
Emol
(in Spanish)
. Retrieved
November 15,
2020
.
- ^
a
b
Chaparro, Amanda (June 2016).
"Peru: la derecha o la derecha"
.
Le Monde diplomatique
.
- ^
"Peru Congress votes to host OAS summit after outrage over gender neutral bathrooms"
.
Reuters
. 2022-07-16
. Retrieved
2022-07-16
.
- ^
Feline Freier, Luisa; Castillo Jara, Soledad (13 January 2021).
"
"Terruqueo" and Peru's Fear of the Left"
.
Americas Quarterly
. Retrieved
2021-11-18
.
- ^
"Que es el "terruqueo" en Peru y como influye en la disputa presidencial entre Fujimori y Castillo"
.
BBC News
(in Spanish)
. Retrieved
2021-11-18
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Levitsky, Steven; Cameron, Maxwell A. (Autumn 2003). "Democracy without Parties? Political Parties and Regime Change in Fujimori's Peru".
Latin American Politics and Society
.
45
(3): 1?33.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00248.x
.
S2CID
153626617
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
"Peru's Political Party System and the Promotion of the Pro-Poor Reform"
(PDF)
.
National Democratic Institute
. March 2005.
- ^
Latin America in the 20th century: 1889-1929, 1991, p. 314-319
- ^
Burt, Jo-Marie (September?October 1998). "Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru".
NACLA Report on the Americas
.
32
(2).
Taylor & Francis
: 35?41.
doi
:
10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657
.
the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.
- ^
a
b
Alfredo Schulte-Bockholt (2006). "Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru".
The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power
. Lexington Books. pp. 114?118.
ISBN
978-0-7391-1358-5
.
important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the 'Plan Verde,' and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The autogolpe, or self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the 'Plan Verde.'
- ^
Aviles, William (Spring 2009). "Despite Insurgency: Reducing Military Prerogatives in Colombia and Peru".
Latin American Politics and Society
.
51
(1).
Cambridge University Press
: 57?85.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1548-2456.2009.00040.x
.
S2CID
154153310
.
- ^
"Peru: Pedro Castillo sworn in as president"
.
Deutsche Welle
. 2021-07-28
. Retrieved
2022-05-07
.
- ^
Aquino, Marco (8 December 2022).
"New Peru president sworn in, predecessor Castillo arrested"
.
Reuters
.
- ^
"The curious case of Peru's persistent president-to-prison politics"
.
The Week
.
- ^
"Peru's presidential lineup: graft probes, suicide and impeachment"
.
Reuters
. 15 November 2020.
- ^
Constitucion Politica del Peru
, Article No. 112.
- ^
"In Peru's Presidential Election, the Most Popular Choice Is No One"
.
The New York Times
. 12 April 2021.
Archived
from the original on 7 June 2021
. Retrieved
7 June
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Elecciones Peru 2021: con el 100% del voto procesado, Pedro Castillo y Keiko Fujimori son los candidatos que pasan a la segunda vuelta de las presidenciales"
(in Spanish). BBC. 12 April 2021.
Archived
from the original on 7 June 2021
. Retrieved
7 June
2021
.
- ^
"Conteo rapido de Ipsos al 100%: Pedro Castillo y Keiko Fujimori disputarian segunda vuelta de Elecciones 2021"
.
El Comercio
(in Spanish). Peru.
Archived
from the original on 12 April 2021
. Retrieved
12 April
2021
.
- ^
"Flash electoral a boca de urna region por region, segun Ipsos"
.
Diario Correo
(in Spanish). 12 April 2021.
Archived
from the original on 12 April 2021
. Retrieved
12 April
2021
.
- ^
Taj, Mitra; Turkewitz, Julie (20 July 2021).
"Pedro Castillo, Leftist Political Outsider, Wins Peru Presidency"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
20 July
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
"Elections Show Fissures in Peru's Political Institutions"
. Finch Ratings. 14 April 2021.
Archived
from the original on 7 June 2021
. Retrieved
7 June
2021
.
- ^
Aquino, Marco (26 July 2021).
"Peru opposition to lead Congress in setback for socialist Castillo"
. Reuters
. Retrieved
28 July
2021
.
- ^
a
b
Asensio, Raul; Camacho, Gabriela; Gonzalez, Natalia; Grompone, Romeo; Pajuelo Teves, Ramon; Pena Jimenez, Omayra; Moscoso, Macarena; Vasquez, Yerel; Sosa Villagarcia, Paolo (August 2021).
El Profe: Como Pedro Castillo se convirtio en presidente del Peru y que pasara a continuacion
(in Spanish) (1 ed.).
Lima, Peru
:
Institute of Peruvian Studies
. pp. 27?71.
ISBN
978-612-326-084-2
. Retrieved
17 November
2021
.
- ^
Monika Huber, Wolfgang Kaiser (February 2013).
"Mixed Feelings"
. dandc.eu.
External links
[
edit
]