Ideologies and ideological demographics in the United States
American political ideologies conventionally align with the
left?right political spectrum
, with most Americans identifying as
conservative
,
liberal
, or
moderate
. Contemporary
American conservatism
includes
social conservatism
and
fiscal conservatism
. The former ideology developed as a response to
communism
and the
civil rights movement
, while the latter developed as a response to the
New Deal
. Contemporary
American liberalism
includes
social liberalism
and
progressivism
, developing during the
Progressive Era
and the
Great Depression
. Besides
conservatism
and
liberalism
, the United States has a notable
libertarian
movement, developing during the mid-20th century as a revival of
classical liberalism
. Historical political movements in the United States have been shaped by ideologies as varied as
republicanism
,
populism
,
separatism
,
fascism
,
socialism
,
monarchism
, and
nationalism
.
Political ideology in the United States began with the country's formation during the
American Revolution
, when republicanism challenged the preexisting monarchism that had defined the colonial governments. After the formation of an independent federal government, republicanism split into new ideologies, including
classical republicanism
,
Jeffersonian democracy
, and
Jacksonian democracy
. In the years preceding the
American Civil War
,
abolitionism
and
secessionism
became prominent. Progressivism developed at the beginning of the 20th century, evolving into
modern liberalism
over the following decades, while modern conservatism developed in response. The
Cold War
popularized
anti-communism
and
neoconservatism
among conservatives, while the civil rights movement popularized support for
racial justice
among liberals. Populist movements grew in the early-21st century, including
social democracy
and
Trumpism
.
Americans of different demographic groups are likely to hold different political beliefs. Men,
white Americans
, the elderly, Christians, and people without college degrees are more likely to be conservative, while women,
African Americans
, young adults, non-Christians, and people with college degrees are more likely to be liberal. Conservatism and liberalism in the United States are different from conservatism and liberalism in other parts of the world, and ideology in the United States is defined by
individualism
rather than
collectivism
.
History
[
edit
]
Early republicanism
[
edit
]
Political ideology in the United States first developed during the
American Revolution
as a dispute between
monarchism
and
republicanism
. Republican ideas developed gradually over the 18th century and challenged monarchism directly through the
Declaration of Independence
in 1776. The monarchists, known as
Loyalists
, advocated that the
Thirteen Colonies
retain their colonial status under the monarchy of
Great Britain
, while the republicans, known as
Patriots
, advocated independence from Great Britain and the establishment of a liberal government based on
popular sovereignty
with no king and no inherited aristocracy. Instead, republicans advocated an elite based on achievement, and that elite had a duty to provide leadership. Patriot victory made republicanism into the foundational ideology of the United States.
[1]
Advocates of republicanism at the time emphasized the importance of
Enlightenment
values (such as
civic virtue
and
benevolence
) to republican ideology and their vision of society involved a select group of elites that represented the people and served in government. The
Constitution of the United States
was ratified in 1789 to establish republicanism as the governmental system of the United States, introducing traditions such as
separation of powers
and
federalism
to the country. Early American republicanism was the first major liberal ideology in the United States, and it became the foundation for both modern conservatism and modern liberalism.
[1]
As the
federal government
evolved in the 1790s, the classical republican ideals of civic virtue and aristocracy were challenged by more liberal ideas of
democracy
and
self-interest
.
[1]
The
Federalist Party
was founded by
Alexander Hamilton
to support political candidates that advocated
classical republicanism
, stronger federal government, and the
American School
of economics, while the
Democratic-Republican Party
was founded by
Thomas Jefferson
to support political candidates that advocated the
agrarian
and
anti-federalist
ideals of
Jeffersonian democracy
.
The Federalists saw most of their support in
New England
, with the other states supporting the Democratic-Republicans.
The influence of Federalists declined during the 1800s, and Jeffersonian democracy came to be the only major ideology during the
Era of Good Feelings
.
[4]
The Democratic-Republican Party fractured in the 1820s as a result of the political rivalry between
John Quincy Adams
and
Andrew Jackson
.
Jackson established his ideology of
Jacksonian democracy
, and the
Democratic Party
was created to support Jackson. Much like Jefferson, Jackson supported popular democracy, rule by the people over elites, and minimal government intervention in the economy.
[6]
However, the Democratic Party was not a direct successor to the Democratic-Republican Party, and they differed in other areas.
Unlike Jefferson, Jackson's Democrats advocated
political patronage
and a stronger
executive branch
.
[7]
The
National Republican Party
was created to oppose Jackson, advocating
government intervention
in the economy and opposing unrestrained individualism.
Anti-Masonry
also saw prominence at this time, and the National Republican Party merged with the
Anti-Masonic Party
in 1833 to form the
Whig Party
. The Whig Party and the Democratic Party became the two major parties.
The Whigs advocated for the
American System
, which consisted of
protectionism
through
tariffs
, a
national bank
, and
internal improvements
.
[10]
Slavery and the Civil War
[
edit
]
Slavery
had been present in North America since colonial times, but it did not become a major political issue in the United States until the 1830s.
National political ideology was not as influential during this period, with sectional politics between the northern and southern states driving political activity.
All of the northern states had abolished slavery by 1805, but it was still widely practiced in the southern states until the
Civil War
(1861?1865).
Abolitionism
had been present in the United States since the country's foundation, but this period of sectionalism brought it into the mainstream, and by the 1840s slavery had become the nation's primary political issue.
The
Republican Party
was formed after the collapse of the Whig Party in the 1850s to reflect the political ideologies of the northern states. It immediately replaced the Whig Party as a major political party, supporting
social mobility
,
egalitarianism
, and limitations on slavery.
The two major political factions of the Republican Party were the
Radical Republicans
, who supported total abolition of slavery and strong action against the secessionist states, and the moderates, who supported concessions with the southern states.
[15]
At the same time, some
nationalist
Americans advocated
expansionism
and
manifest destiny
, seeking to acquire additional territory.
[16]
Many of these individuals wished for additional territory to create additional
slave states
.
[17]
Secessionism
became prominent in
South Carolina
during the
Nullification crisis
in 1832. Secessionists opposed the protectionist tariffs of
1828
and
1832
, threatening to secede if the federal government attempted to enforce them. Secession and military conflict were averted by a
compromise tariff
in 1833.
[18]
The secessionist movement in South Carolina grew more popular in the 1850s as the issue of slavery became more contentious. In 1861, fearing that the federal government would restrict or abolish slavery, South Carolina was the first of 11 states to secede from the United States and form the
Confederate States of America
, prompting the Civil War.
[19]
Democrats in the northern states were split between the
War Democrats
that supported military action to prevent secession and the
Copperheads
that opposed military action.
[20]
During the
Reconstruction era
from 1865 to 1877, politics focused on resolving the issues of the Civil War. The ratification of the
Thirteenth Amendment
abolished slavery in the United States, and ideologies based on the issue of slavery were made irrelevant. The Radical Republicans supported liberal reforms during Reconstruction to advance the rights of African Americans, including suffrage and education for
freedmen
.
[21]
White supremacy
was a major ideology in the southern states, and restrictions on the rights of
African Americans
saw widespread support in the region, often enforced through both political and violent means.
[22]
The conservative
Bourbon Democrats
were prominent in the south during this period, supporting
fiscal conservatism
or classical liberalism, and setting the foundation for the period of conservative Democratic control in the region known as
Solid South
.
[23]
[24]
The Gilded Age
[
edit
]
The
Gilded Age
took place between the 1870s and 1900. During this time, the Republican Party fractured on the issue of the
spoils system
in the federal government. Senator
Roscoe Conkling
led the conservative
Stalwarts
, who supported the traditional
political machine
and wished to retain the spoils system. Those that opposed Conkling, especially supporters of Senator
James G. Blaine
, made up the liberal
Half-Breeds
, who supported
civil service reform
to abolish the spoils system. The Stalwarts primarily resided in the three states most influenced by machine politics: New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. They were also prevalent among southern Republicans, though the Solid South was overwhelmingly Democratic.
[25]
The Democratic Party continued to be divided by sectional politics during the Gilded Age. Ideologies based on monetary issues produced conflict within both major parties.
Silverites
opposed the nation's
de facto
gold standard
and supported a return to
bimetallism
.
[26]
Small government
ideals were still prominent at this time, with neither major party seeking to expand the government.
By the 1870s, both major political parties supported
industrialization
, and in response, supporters of populist agrarianism established the
People's Party
in 1892. The
Panic of 1893
accelerated these disputes, causing a major party realignment. The People's Party was absorbed by the Democratic Party, and the conservative Bourbon Democrats lost influence. Populism, agrarianism, and bimetallism became the dominant ideologies in the Democratic Party, led by
William Jennings Bryan
.
[26]
Other major ideological groups during the Gilded Age include the
Mugwumps
, the
Greenbacks
, and the
Prohibitionists
. The Mugwumps were a loosely formed collection of anti-corruption conservatives that left the Republican Party. The Greenbacks were the largest of a series of labor related movements that advocated an increased money supply, increased government regulation, and an
income tax
. The Prohibitionists were a single-issue group that advocated
prohibition
of alcohol.
The Progressive Era
[
edit
]
In the 1890s and 1900s,
progressivism
developed as a major political ideology in the United States. Progressives opposed the effects of industrialization in the United States, supporting major governmental and societal reform to counteract them. These reforms were inspired by the moral ethos of
evangelicalism
and the development of the
social sciences
.
Progressives sought to end corruption, increase public participation in government, and expand government with the goal of improving society.
[30]
The progressive movement resulted in the rejection of
laissez-faire
capitalism in the United States and the foundation of welfare capitalism.
[31]
Progressives came from multiple political traditions and developed many new political ideas. Progressives typically supported
direct democracy
and oversaw several reforms that gave more voting power to the citizens. These reforms included the implementation of
primary elections
to choose party candidates and the direct election of
senators
through the ratification of the
Seventeenth Amendment
. Regarding social issues, progressives typically believed that the government was best fit to make decisions about behavior through
social control
. The most prominent example of this was the
prohibition on alcohol
in the 1920s. Progressives also advocated for
compulsory sterilization
of those deemed "unfit". Progressives in the early-20th century raised
first-wave feminism
and
women's suffrage
into the mainstream, guaranteeing universal suffrage to all women through the ratification of the
Nineteenth Amendment
.
[31]
[32]
The Democrats during the Progressive Era moved away from the conservative, small government ideology under which they had operated in the late-19th century.
The Democratic Party at this time did not advocate a single ideological system but was composed of several competing populist factions that opposed the Republican Party.
The Democrats adopted a reformed view of democracy in which political candidates sought support directly rather than through intermediaries such as political machines.
Many progressive reforms became popular within the Democratic Party to increase direct democracy and give citizens more power over government operations,
and they also adopted the idea of the
Living Constitution
during this period.
During the presidency of Woodrow Wilson,
Wilsonianism
was developed as a
liberal internationalist
foreign relations ideology.
[38]
Republicans during the Progressive Era were divided between a conservative faction and a progressive faction.
Theodore Roosevelt
split from the Republican Party in 1912, and his supporters formed the short-lived
Progressive Party
. This party advocated a strong
collectivist
government and a large number of social and political reforms.
Far-left ideologies also saw brief popularity during this time. The
Socialist Party of America
was led by
Eugene V. Debs
and advocated for collective ownership of many industries.
The
anarchist
movement in the United States was responsible for several terrorist attacks during the 1910s.
[41]
The
Red Scare
, a strong backlash to these leftist movements, formed in 1919.
[42]
The New Deal coalition
[
edit
]
During the
Great Depression
, small government conservatism became less popular, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt
formed the
New Deal coalition
. The Democratic Party at this time expanded on the reformist beliefs of progressivism, establishing social liberalism and welfare capitalism as the predominant liberal ideology in the United States. Supporters of Roosevelt's liberalism advocated financial reform, increased government regulation, and social welfare programs, encapsulated in the
New Deal
. Conservative Republicans and southern
conservative Democrats
formed the
conservative coalition
during Roosevelt's second term. Following the presidencies of Roosevelt and
Truman
, however, the Democratic Party moved away from populism in the 1950s.
American liberalism also shifted its perspective on poverty during this time, emphasizing it as a long term social issue rather than a crisis that could be fixed with a sufficient response.
The Republican Party's progressive wing had dissipated in the build up to the Great Depression. The party instead began to advocate for
small business
,
equal opportunity
, and
individualism
. These ideas became the foundation of modern fiscal conservatism that would define the Republican Party through the 20th century.
The foundations of modern social conservatism were also developed by the Republican Party of the 1920s and 1930s, with
Herbert Hoover
emphasizing politics as a means to protect the American family and American morality.
Rather than strengthening of government to do good as advocated by progressivism, conservative Republicans sought to restrict the government to prevent harm.
The Republican Party came out strongly against the New Deal programs of the 1930s, arguing that "
big government
" threatened to become tyrannical.
American entry into World War II
was debated between
isolationists
and
interventionists
from the onset of conflict in the
European theatre
in 1939 until the
attack on Pearl Harbor
in 1941.
[49]
During the war, an ideology of self-sacrifice was promoted and adopted by the American people, including both
military service
and
home front activities
such as
rationing
.
[50]
After the end of the war, interventionism persisted through programs such as the
Marshall Plan
.
[51]
Fascism briefly saw popularity in the 1930s, though it was no longer relevant after World War II.
[52]
Cold War and the Civil Rights Era
[
edit
]
The
Cold War
began in 1947, causing a shift in foreign policy.
Americanism
developed as its own distinct conservative ideology that rejected foreign ideas and
communism
in particular.
The United States as a whole supported
liberal democracy
and
capitalism
in contrast with
Marxism?Leninism
which was supported by the
Soviet Union
.
[54]
Anti-communism
was prevalent in the United States during the Cold War, while American communist organizations typically operated in secret and often conducted espionage in collaboration with the Soviet Union. Among conservatives, this anti-communism overlapped with anti-liberalism as
McCarthyism
, in which all political opponents of conservatives were accused of communist sympathies.
[55]
Neoconservatism
also developed within the conservative movement, made up of former Democrats that were disillusioned with the party's liberalism.
[56]
The
Vietnam War
took place during the Cold War, causing a significant
anti-war movement
within the contemporary
counterculture
. Both the anti-war movement and the war itself were unpopular with the public.
[57]
Libertarianism
developed as a minor ideology in the 1960s, and
Libertarian Party
was founded in 1971 after the gold standard was abolished by
President Nixon
.
[58]
In the 1960s, national politics focused heavily on the
civil rights movement
, and the New Deal coalition ended as support for
civil rights
and
racial justice
became major aspects of liberalism in the United States.
Civil rights legislation such as the
Civil Rights Act of 1964
alienated the conservative
Southern Democrats
. White supremacy was widespread in the southern United States, with third-party white supremacist candidates winning in southern states in the
1948
and
1968
presidential elections.
[60]
Political ideology evolved significantly in the African American community during the civil rights movement as the community developed its own political voice. The two most prominent civil rights ideologies were the liberal ideology of
racial integration
through
political demonstration
championed by
Martin Luther King Jr.
and the separatist ideology of
Black nationalism
championed by
Malcolm X
. Other civil rights ideologies included liberal ideas of incentivizing integration through private action, socialist ideas of forgoing race issues in favor of class issues, and
Black conservative
ideas of personal responsibility for African Americans.
[61]
Conservatives opposed government intervention designed to increase employment for African Americans and opposed extending civil rights protections, believing that these policies would hurt African Americans economically and would make the United States a liberal welfare state.
[62]
Reagan Era
[
edit
]
Though conservatives opposed welfare spending during the New Deal era, this opposition did not become a core tenet of American conservatism until the 1970s.
Southern conservatives were united under the Republican Party at this time through the
Southern strategy
. Conservatism had been seen as a dying ideology following the defeat of
Barry Goldwater
in the
1964 presidential election
, but the
Reagan administration
in the 1980s returned American conservatism to the political mainstream.
[64]
The
Reagan coalition
brought together
segregationists
, businessmen, conservatives, neoconservatives, libertarians, and the religious
new right
, including
Christian fundamentalists
, Evangelicals,
Catholics
and
Jews
. They rejected the leftward shift of the country in the previous decades, instead advocating
laissez-faire
economics and traditional values while opposing communism and the civil rights movement.
[64]
[65]
Social conservatism became a prominent ideology in politics during the Reagan Era, fueled by opposition to
abortion
and the
Equal Rights Amendment
.
[66]
The
Tuesday Group
was founded in 1995 to represent the
moderate wing of the Republican Party
in Congress.
[67]
Liberals in the 1970s and 1980s expanded their focus on inclusivity and minority rights.
In the 1990s, support for conservative policies resulted in
Third Way
politics to become popular in the Democratic Party, led by the
New Democrats
. This ideology consisted of support for
free trade
, free markets, and reduction of government spending.
[69]
The left-wing
Congressional Progressive Caucus
, the centrist and conservative
Blue Dog Coalition
, and the Third Way
New Democrat Coalition
formed in the 1990s to represent different factions of the Democratic Party in Congress.
[67]
21st century
[
edit
]
After the
September 11 attacks
, neoconservatism became a dominant force in the conservative movement, and conservatives supported the
Bush Doctrine
, a foreign policy principle that encouraged foreign military involvement as the
Bush administration
pursued the
war on terror
.
[70]
The peace movement subsequently resurged in the United States in response to the
War in Afghanistan
and the
Iraq War
.
[71]
In the years following the September 11 attacks, a distinct form of
patriotism
developed based on
American values
,
democracy promotion
, and nationality derived from principle.
[72]
Following the end of the Cold War, the focus of American anti-communism shifted to
China
as it became a world power.
[73]
The early-21st century saw the emergence or reemergence of several
social issues
as subjects of political debate. Liberals increasingly expressed support for
LGBT rights
(including
same-sex marriage
) while conservatives predominantly expressed
opposition to LGBT rights
.
[74]
Among young single women, the percentage of them identifying as liberal increased from about 15 percent in the early 1980s to 32 percent in the 2020s. The past decade has seen single young men move slightly to the right and single young women move significantly to the left, meaning that the ideological divide between the sexes is widening.
[75]
Illegal immigration
became more prominent as a political issue, with liberals advocating
pluralism
and conservatives advocating
nativism
.
[76]
The
COVID-19 pandemic
in 2020 became a political issue in which liberals supported
COVID-19 lockdowns
and the
use of face masks
while conservatives opposed such measures and considered the pandemic a non-issue.
[77]
The 2010s were marked by increasing
polarization
and populism among candidates and voters. The
Tea Party movement
formed as a libertarian, right-wing populist and conservative response to the election of
Barack Obama
in 2008.
[78]
[79]
[80]
[81]
Members of the movement advocated for smaller government, lower
taxes
, and decreased
government spending
.
[82]
[83]
[84]
This populism in turn led to
Trumpism
following the election of
Donald Trump
in 2016.
[85]
Right-wing populism during this period focused on protectionist fiscal conservatism as well as cultural issues surrounding immigration and
identity politics
.
[86]
[87]
[88]
Trumpism also incorporated an opposition to democratic norms
[89]
[90]
and an acceptance of
political conspiracy theories
as mainstream ideas.
[91]
[92]
Left-wing populism became more influential during the 2010s, beginning with the
Occupy movement
in 2011.
[93]
Left-wing populist ideologies popularized in the 2010s include
social democracy
and
democratic socialism
due to the popularity of politicians such as
Bernie Sanders
.
[94]
[95]
Prominent ideologies
[
edit
]
Political ideology in the United States is usually described with the
left?right spectrum
.
Liberalism
is the predominant left-leaning ideology and
conservatism
is the predominant right-leaning ideology.
[96]
[97]
Those who hold beliefs between liberalism and conservatism or a mix of beliefs on this scale are called moderates. Within this system, there are different ways to divide these ideologies even further and determine one's ideology.
[98]
Ideological positions can be divided into social issues and
economic issues
, and the positions a person holds on social or economic policy might be different than their position on the political spectrum.
[99]
The United States has a
de facto
two-party system
. The political parties are flexible and have undergone several ideological shifts over time. Since the mid-20th century, the Democratic Party has typically supported liberal policies and the Republican Party has typically supported conservative policies.
[100]
Third parties
play a minor role in American politics, and members of third parties rarely hold office at the federal level. Instead, ideas with popular support are often adopted by one of the two major parties.
[101]
Conservatism
[
edit
]
Modern conservatism in the United States traces its origins to the small government principles of the Republican Party in the 1920s, and it developed through
opposition to communism
, the New Deal coalition and the civil rights movement in the mid-20th century.
[64]
The rise of the Reagan coalition led to the election of
Ronald Reagan
in 1980, establishing conservatism as a major ideology in the United States. This coalition advocated
laissez-faire
economics, social conservatism, and anti-communism, with support from libertarians, northern businessmen, southern segregationists, and the
Christian right
.
[64]
[102]
In the early 21st century,
right-wing populism
and
neo-nationalism
gained considerable influence among the conservative movement. Right-wing populism became the predominant conservative faction in response to the increasing
liberalization
of society, beginning with the Tea Party movement of 2009 and continuing with the
presidency of Donald Trump
.
[86]
[103]
There are several different schools of thought within American conservatism.
Social conservatives
and the Christian right advocate
traditional values
,
decentralization
, and
religious law
, fearing that the United States is undergoing moral decline. Fiscal conservatives (or classical liberals) advocate small government,
tax cuts
, and lower
government spending
. Americans that identify as conservative will typically support most or all of these ideas to some extent, arguing that small government and traditional values are closely linked.
[104]
American right-wing populists advocate tax cuts,
protectionism
, and
opposition to immigration
, framing politics as a battle against "elites" from above and "subversives" from below.
[86]
[87]
[88]
Conservatism in the United States does not advocate a unified foreign policy ideology, though common tenets include support for
American hegemony
, promotion of
free markets
abroad, and
combat readiness
.
[105]
Realism
was prominent in conservative foreign policy during the mid-20th century, advocating cautious advances in influence through diplomacy to advance American interests. Support for realism fell among conservatives during the
Reagan administration
in favor of
American exceptionalism
and more aggressive anti-communism.
[106]
Neoconservatives form an interventionist wing of the conservative movement, advocating
peace through strength
and the use of force to promote democracy and combat threats abroad.
[56]
Other conservative ideologies support isolationism and limited involvement in foreign affairs.
[107]
As of 2021, over one-third of the American public self-identifies as conservative. The Republican Party represents conservatives in the United States, with 74% of Republicans identifying as conservative, compared to only 12% of Democrats.
[108]
As of 2022, Republican leaning voters are more likely than Democrats to prioritize the issues of immigration, the budget deficit, and strengthening the military.
[109]
A Pew Research study in 2015 found that the most reliable Republican demographics were
Mormons
and Evangelicals, particularly
white Americans
in each group.
[110]
Liberalism
[
edit
]
Modern liberalism in the United States originates from the reforms advocated by the progressive movement of the early 20th century.
Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented the New Deal in response to the Great Depression, and the New Deal programs defined social liberalism in the United States, establishing it as a major ideology. In the 1960s, it expanded to include support for the civil rights movement.
Following the rise of the Reagan coalition in the 1980s and the shift toward conservatism in the United States, American liberals adopted Third Way liberalism. A movement of
left-wing populism
emerged within liberalism following the
Great Recession
and
Occupy Wall Street
.
[111]
Liberalism in the United States is founded on support for strong
civil liberties
,
cultural liberalism
, and
cultural pluralism
.
[112]
Liberal social beliefs include support for more government intervention to fight
poverty
and other social issues through programs such as
welfare
and a
social safety net
, as well as opposition to government intervention in moral and social behavior.
[113]
Liberal economic beliefs include support for a
mixed economy
that uses a capitalist system maintained with economic interventionism and
regulation
, as well as opposition to both
laissez-faire
capitalism and
socialism
as means to distribute economic resources.
Keynesian economics
commonly factor into liberal economic policy. Those that identify as liberal will typically support liberal economic policies as a means to support liberal social policies.
[113]
Liberals within the modern progressive movement support greater
redistribution of wealth
, increases to the federal
minimum wage
, a mandatory
single-payer healthcare
system, and
environmental justice
.
[111]
[114]
Liberal internationalism
is a key component of American foreign policy, supporting increased involvement in the affairs of other countries to promote liberalism and seek
liberal peace
. This ideology was first developed in the United States as Wilsonianism during World War I, replacing the expansionism of the
Roosevelt Corollary
.
[115]
Liberal internationalism has been the dominant foreign policy ideology of the United States since the 1950s.
[116]
Realism grew in popularity among liberals in the early-21st century in response to the interventionist neoconservatism of the Bush administration.
[117]
Progressive Americans support
pacifism
and antihegemonism in foreign policy.
[118]
As of 2021, about one quarter of the American public self-identifies as liberal, making it the smallest of the mainstream ideological groups. The Democratic Party represents liberals in the United States, with 50% of Democrats identifying as liberal, compared to only 4% of Republicans.
[108]
As of 2022, Democratic leaning voters are more likely than Republicans to prioritize the issues of the COVID-19 pandemic,
climate change
, race, and poverty.
[109]
A Pew Research study in 2015 found that the most reliable Democratic demographics were African Americans,
atheists
, and
Asian Americans
.
[110]
Moderates
[
edit
]
Moderates prioritize compromise and pragmatism, and moderate politics vary depending on the political circumstances of the era. During the American Revolution, moderates generally supported the ideas of the revolutionary Patriots, but they were concerned about the potential consequences of open revolution.
[119]
During the Civil War, southern moderates opposed secession, while northern moderates advocated a more gradual response to slavery than the total abolitionism and enforcement of civil rights proposed by Radical Republicans.
[15]
[120]
During Reconstruction, moderate Republicans sought to increase support for civil rights in the South instead of implementing them through force.
[121]
In the 1950s, President
Dwight D. Eisenhower
operated under his policy of "Modern Republicanism" that promoted moderate politics in response to the New Deal coalition and the Conservative coalition.
[122]
Moderates identify as neither liberal nor conservative, holding a mix of beliefs that does not necessarily correspond to either group. They typically believe that issues are too complex for simple partisan solutions to work and that the two major political parties are too ideological. Some policy stances have strong support from moderates, including
background checks
on gun purchases and investing in renewable energy.
[123]
Beyond a resistance to the terms liberal and conservative, there is little that unites moderates ideologically, and moderates can hold a variety of political positions.
[124]
[125]
As of 2021, over one-third of the American public self-identifies as moderate. Self-identified moderates make up about one-third of the Democratic Party, about one-fifth of the Republican Party, and about half of independents.
[108]
Minor ideologies
[
edit
]
Fascism
[
edit
]
Fascism
never achieved success in American politics.
[126]
There were, however, prominent American supporters of fascism in the 1930s, including
Henry Ford
.
Charles Coughlin
, at one point the second most popular radio host in the United States,
[52]
openly advocated fascist ideals during his program. A minority of Americans at the time were also sympathetic to fascism because of its
antisemitism
, its anti-communism, and what was perceived as its
economic success
.
[52]
Antisemitism in the United States
was common at the time, and many antisemitic groups openly expressed these views.
[127]
[128]
The
Friends of New Germany
and its successor the
German American Bund
represented the largest
Nazi
organizations in the United States, which is estimated to have had 25,000 members.
[129]
Present day Nazism is called
Neo-Nazism
. Many factors have been proposed that cause someone to
radicalize
and adopt Nazism, including a traumatic past, a search for meaning through
extremism
, and a propensity to violence or aggression.
[130]
[131]
A 2017 poll found that 9% of Americans believe neo-Nazi beliefs are "acceptable".
[132]
The
Federal Bureau of Investigation
recognized neo-Nazis as a major
domestic terror
threat in 2020.
[133]
The words "
fascist
" and "Nazi" are sometimes used erroneously as epithets to describe political figures and ideologies, but these uses of the terms are generally disputed by academics that study the subject.
[134]
[135]
[136]
The mid-2010s saw the brief rise in the
alt-right
movement, which was characterized by its sympathy to fascist ideologies and opposition to multiracial liberal democracy.
[137]
[138]
Libertarianism
[
edit
]
Developed in the mid-20th century as a revival of classical liberalism, libertarianism in the United States (dominantly
right-libertarianism
) is founded on the ideas of severely limited government, with supporters of libertarianism advocating fiscal conservatism and reduction of social programs, social liberalism, and isolationist foreign policy.
[139]
Libertarians make up a notable minority group in American politics, with about 11% of Americans saying that the term describes them well as of 2014. Men were twice as likely to identify with the term as women, and Democrats were half as likely to identify with the term as Republicans or independents.
[140]
As of 2013, 68% of libertarians were men, 94% of libertarians were white, and 62% of libertarians were under the age of 50. Religiously, 50% of libertarians were Protestant, 27% were religiously unaffiliated, and 11% were Catholic.
[141]
Libertarianism is promoted by the Libertarian Party, the largest minor party in the United States. Libertarians in the United States typically vote for the Republican Party, with only a small portion voting for the Democratic Party or the Libertarian Party.
[141]
Some libertarians have begun voting for the Democratic Party since 2020 in response to the rise of right-wing populism in the Republican Party.
[142]
Some major
think tanks
in the United States operate from a libertarian perspective, including the
Cato Institute
and the
Reason Foundation
.
Monarchism
[
edit
]
Before the American Revolution, the Thirteen Colonies were ruled by the
Crown of Great Britain
. The
Founding Fathers of the United States
largely rejected monarchism in favor of republicanism, and the Revolutionary War was fought to free the colonies from monarchy. About one-fifth of Americans during the revolution were part of the loyalist faction that wished to remain a monarchy under the British crown, and after the United States became an independent country, thousands of loyalists emigrated to Britain or to other colonies.
[143]
Following the revolution, some individuals supported the continuation of monarchism in the United States. Most notably, Alexander Hamilton proposed an
elective monarchy
as the American system of government, favoring a strong executive with lifetime rule.
[144]
Other supporters of monarchism at the time include the military officers that advocated in the
Newburgh letter
that George Washington become a monarch and the alleged
Prussian scheme
that sought to put the United States under the rule of
Prince Henry of Prussia
.
[145]
No major monarchist movements have emerged since the 18th century. The
Constantian Society
advocated monarchy in the late 20th century, but it did not see mainstream success. Elements of monarchism still exist, however, in the function of the
United States presidency
. The office had many of its functions based on those of the British monarch, including its status as a unitary executive, its capacity over foreign affairs, and powers such as the presidential veto.
[144]
Dark Enlightenment
, a fringe neoreactionary movement that emerged in the late 2000s whose adherents include
Curtis Yarvin
,
Peter Thiel
, and
Steve Bannon
, largely rejects democracy and advocates for the implementation of either an
absolute monarchy
or a style of governance similar to a monarchy.
[146]
[147]
Separatism
[
edit
]
Many separatist movements have advocated secession from the United States, though none have achieved major support since the American Civil War.
[148]
The most significant separatist movement was secessionism in the southern United States in the 1860s. Politicians from the southern states declared independence and established the Confederate States of America, an unrecognized government led by
Jefferson Davis
, resulting in the American Civil War.
[19]
Following the Civil War, the states were reincorporated into the union, and the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession was unconstitutional in
Texas v. White
.
[149]
The
Republic of Texas
was created when it seceded from
Mexico
before ultimately joining the United States. Since the admission of Texas as a state, various
Texas secession movements
have developed. A common misconception purports that Texas reserved the right to secede when it was admitted, but no such legal provision exists.
[150]
Since at least the 1970s, various groups within the
Pacific Northwest
have advocated for the region to separate and form its own nation, largely based on the strong cultural, environmental, and demographic similarities the various states in the region share. Notable examples include the
Cascadia independence movement
, which advocates for
Oregon
,
Washington
, and the
Canadian province
of
British Columbia
to separate based on their economic, environmental, and cultural ties,
[151]
[152]
and the
Northwest Territorial Imperative
, in which white supremacists advocated creating an
ethnostate
in the region due to its largely white demographics and isolated geography.
[153]
[154]
The
status
of
Puerto Rico
in the United States has long been debated, with independence being considered as an alternative to statehood.
[155]
Other notable separatist groups in the United States include
Ka Lahui Hawaii
and the
Alaskan Independence Party
, both of which have had membership in the tens of thousands.
[156]
[157]
Other notable proposals for secession have been suggested in the past. The
Kentucky Resolution
by Thomas Jefferson threatened secession in response to the
Alien and Sedition Acts
in 1798. The Nullification crisis represented another threat of secession in 1832. In the 21st century, political polarization has resulted in higher support for a division of the United States.
[158]
As of 2021, two-thirds of Republicans in Southern states support a renewed Confederacy.
[159]
Some extremist groups support racial separatism, which advocates separatism on the basis of race or ethnicity instead of geography.
White separatism
and
Black separatism
advocate the creation of ethnostates along racial lines.
[160]
Socialism
[
edit
]
Socialists
advocate the abolition of
private property
and
social hierarchy
in favor of
collective ownership
of the
means of production
.
[161]
[162]
The Socialist Party of America was founded in 1901, and it saw moderate success as a third party, electing two members to Congress and running Eugene V. Debs as a notable third-party candidate in the
1912
and
1920
presidential elections.
[163]
At the same time,
anarchism
gained a following in the United States and became the motivating ideology behind a wave of
left-wing terrorism
, including several bombings and the
assassination of William McKinley
.
[41]
[164]
Following the
Russian Revolution
, socialism was negatively received by Americans, and strong social backlash to socialism resulted in the
Red Scare
.
[42]
"Socialism is a scare word they have hurled at every advance the people have made in the last 20 years. Socialism is what they called public power. Socialism is what they called social security. Socialism is what they called farm price supports. Socialism is what they called bank deposit insurance. Socialism is what they called the growth of free and independent labor organizations. Socialism is their name for almost anything that helps all the people."
[165]
Anti-socialism and anti-communism began to play a larger role in American politics during the Cold War.
[55]
The
New Left
briefly existed as a socialist movement in the 1960s and 1970s.
[166]
In the 21st century, perceptions of socialism have improved in the United States, especially
among young Americans
.
[167]
As of 2022
[update]
, the
Democratic Socialists of America
is the largest socialist group in the United States, reporting over 92,000 members and having
elected members
to Congress under the Democratic Party.
[168]
This group advocates democratic socialism, including the nationalization of major industries and the transfer of other industries from private ownership to workers' ownership.
[169]
The words "socialist" and "communist" are sometimes used erroneously as
epithets
to describe political figures and ideologies. Many politicians, political groups, and policies in the United States have been referred to as socialist despite supporting
welfare capitalism
with government programs and regulations.
[170]
[171]
[172]
When polled, a significant portion of Americans were unable to accurately identify what socialism was, believing it to refer to government spending, welfare programs, equal rights, or liberalism, and 23 percent had no opinion.
[173]
[174]
Demographics of ideological groups
[
edit
]
Men in the United States tend to be slightly more conservative than women. As of 2021, 41% of men identified as conservative, compared to 32% of women.
[108]
Voter turnout tends to be slightly higher among women than among men.
[175]
A
gender gap
has been found to exist in voting patterns, with women more likely to vote for the Democratic Party since the 1970s. Military intervention and the death penalty are significantly more popular among men than women, while gun control and social welfare programs are significantly more popular among women than men.
[176]
[177]
Men that identify with
hypermasculinity
and women that identify with hyperfemininity have been found to lean more conservative than those that do not.
[178]
Race is correlated with partisanship in the United States. White Americans are more likely to support Republican candidates. The majority of African Americans have been Democrats since 1936, and they continue to be seen as a reliable voting bloc for the Democratic Party, with as many as 82% of African Americans identifying as Democrats in 2000. Black political candidates are generally perceived as more liberal than white candidates.
[179]
Asian Americans do not have a shared national and political identity, and as such are not considered a distinct voting bloc,
[180]
though they have increasingly supported the Democratic Party in the 21st century.
[110]
Native Americans
slightly favor the Democratic Party, though Native American tribes are often separated from American society and do not participate heavily in national politics.
[181]
Younger Americans tend to lean liberal, while older Americans tend to lean conservative. As of 2021, 23% of Americans aged 18 to 29 are conservative, compared to 45% of Americans aged 65 and up. Likewise, 34% of Americans aged 18 to 29 are liberal compared to 21% aged 65 and up.
[108]
Americans' political ideologies generally do not change much as they grow older, but ideological shifts in one's life are more likely to move to the right than to the left.
[182]
Younger voters and older voters typically consider the same factors when voting. After reaching their mid-60s,
correct voting
sharply declines among voters, with a majority of elderly voters in their 80s and 90s casting votes that contradict their stated beliefs. This is attributed to decreasing cognitive capabilities as well as an ability to access up-to-date information due to slower manual dexterity and difficulty using technology.
[183]
As of 2014, Christians make up 85% of conservatives and 52% of liberals, non-Christian faiths make up 3% of conservatives and 10% of liberals, and the religiously unaffiliated make up 11% of conservatives and 36% of liberals. A majority of Mormons and Evangelical Protestants and a plurality of Catholics in the United States identify as conservative, while a plurality of Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, and the irreligious identify as liberal.
[184]
Identifying with a religious tradition has been found to reduce political participation, but participation in church activities has been found to increase political participation. Religious Americans that believe in a God who intervenes in human affairs are less likely to participate in politics.
[185]
Political beliefs and religious beliefs in the United States are closely intertwined, with both affecting the other.
[186]
[187]
Highly educated Americans are more likely to be liberal. In 2015, 44% of Americans with college degrees identified as liberal, while 29% identified as conservative. Americans without college experience were about equally likely to identify as liberal or conservative, with roughly half identifying as having mixed political values.
[188]
This divide primarily exists between educated and uneducated white voters, and it marks a reversal of previous trends where college-educated whites were more conservative.
[189]
Several reasons for this phenomenon have been proposed, including college graduates spending more time in liberal cities, a prioritization of science over traditional authority, college students being exposed to new ideas, and conservative distrust of higher education.
[190]
[191]
[192]
Income is not a major factor in political ideology. In 2021, each income group had a nearly identical distribution of ideologies, matching the general population.
[108]
Comparison to global politics
[
edit
]
While liberal and conservative are the primary ideological descriptors in the United States, they do not necessarily correlate to usage of the terms in other countries. In the United States, liberalism refers specifically to social liberalism and cultural liberalism, and it leans farther to the left than liberalism in other countries.
[113]
[193]
Conservatism is derived from the traditions of a society, so American conservatism reflects the ideas of classical liberalism and Christian belief that were dominant in the early history of the United States.
[194]
The American conception of freedom is distinct on the world stage, with freedom often recognized as limitations on state power rather than obligations of the state. The
right to property
is given high priority, and
taxes
are particularly unpopular. Activism and personal participation in politics are encouraged, and
civic engagement
is considered a trait of good citizenship. Membership in civic organizations and participation in
protests
are common forms of civic engagement. Equal opportunity is typically more popular than
equality of outcome
.
[195]
Historically, the ideology of the United States was based in constitutional republicanism. This came directly in opposition to the monarchism and aristocracy of European kingdoms and of Great Britain in particular.
[196]
This political history of constitutional republicanism is closely related to that of South America. Both regions have a shared history of colonialism, revolutionary war, federalist republicanism, and
presidential systems
. Political traits that are sometimes considered distinct to the United States are also common in South America, including common ideological positions on religion, crime, economy, national identity, multiculturalism, and guns.
[197]
[198]
Political ideology is one of the primary factors to which the Cold War is attributed, and it affects how the United States operates as a global
superpower
. American ideology is centered in liberal democracy and capitalism, and global politics in second half of the 20th century was defined by its opposition to the Marxism?Leninism of the Soviet Union and the
Eastern Bloc
.
[54]
The United States has undertaken
nation-building
in several countries, directly influencing the political systems of the Philippines, Germany, Austria, Japan, Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.
[199]
American politics is dominated by individualist ideology instead of the collectivist ideology that influences politics in some European countries.
[200]
American citizens expect less influence and intervention by the government and are less likely to accept government intervention compared to citizens of European countries. Ideologies that advocate
collective rights
are not well received by American voters if they come at the cost of individual rights.
[200]
Americans and Western Europeans have a similar conception of democracy and governance, prioritizing a free judiciary and fair elections at about equal levels.
[201]
Americans and Western Europeans are also similarly progressive on issues such as LGBT rights and gender equality.
[201]
Americans, however, place higher priority on
freedom of religion
than Western European countries, and Americans are more likely to believe that individual success is within a person's control.
[201]
Both social democracy and nativism have become more prominent in the 21st century United States, resembling their counterparts in many European countries.
[202]
[203]
Democracy in both the United States and European countries are threatened by rising
anti-establishmentism
and the resulting extremism and polarization. The two-party system and Congressional gridlock make the United States more susceptible to polarization than countries with other systems, though this structure also prevents extremist parties from taking power.
[204]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
Wood, Gordon S. (April 1990). "Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution".
Chicago-Kent Law Review
.
66
: 13?38.
- ^
Brown, David (1999).
"Jeffersonian Ideology and the Second Party System"
.
The Historian
.
62
(1): 17?30.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1540-6563.1999.tb01431.x
.
ISSN
0018-2370
.
JSTOR
24450533
.
- ^
Feller, Daniel (October 4, 2016).
"Andrew Jackson: Impact and Legacy"
.
Miller Center
. Retrieved
April 16,
2022
.
- ^
Yoo, John (July 16, 2008).
"Andrew Jackson and Presidential Power"
.
UC Berkeley, Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series
. Rochester, NY.
SSRN
1158001
.
- ^
"U.S. Senate: Classic Senate Speeches"
.
United States Senate
. Retrieved
April 16,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Bogue, Allan G. (1983).
"Historians and Radical Republicans: A Meaning for Today"
.
The Journal of American History
.
70
(1): 7?34.
doi
:
10.2307/1890519
.
ISSN
0021-8723
.
JSTOR
1890519
.
- ^
Brauer, Kinley (1999).
"Manifest Destiny Revisited"
.
Diplomatic History
.
23
(2): 379?384.
doi
:
10.1111/1467-7709.00171
.
- ^
Morrison, Michael A. (2000).
Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny
. University of North Carolina Press. p. 169.
ISBN
9780807864326
.
- ^
Freehling, William W. (1992).
Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816-1836
.
Oxford University Press
. pp. 1?2.
ISBN
9780195076813
.
- ^
a
b
Anderson, Lawrence M. (January 1, 2004).
"The Institutional Basis of Secessionist Politics: Federalism and Secession in the United States"
.
Publius: The Journal of Federalism
.
34
(2): 1?18.
doi
:
10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a005025
.
ISSN
0048-5950
.
- ^
Rodgers, Thomas E. (2013).
"Copperheads or a Respectable Minority: Current Approaches to the Study of Civil War-Era Democrats"
.
Indiana Magazine of History
.
109
(2): 114?146.
doi
:
10.5378/indimagahist.109.2.0114
.
ISSN
0019-6673
.
JSTOR
10.5378/indimagahist.109.2.0114
.
- ^
Tyack, David; Lowe, Robert (February 1, 1986).
"The Constitutional Moment: Reconstruction and Black Education in the South"
.
American Journal of Education
.
94
(2): 236?256.
doi
:
10.1086/443844
.
ISSN
0195-6744
.
S2CID
143849662
.
- ^
Byman, Daniel (July 19, 2021).
"White Supremacy, Terrorism, and the Failure of Reconstruction in the United States"
.
International Security
.
46
(1): 53?103.
doi
:
10.1162/isec_a_00410
.
ISSN
0162-2889
.
S2CID
236094318
.
- ^
Feldman, Glenn (2013).
The Irony of the Solid South: Democrats, Republicans, and Race, 1865?1944
. University of Alabama Press. p. 49.
ISBN
9780817317935
.
- ^
Alexandra Kindell; Elizabeth S. Demers Ph.D., eds. (2014). Encyclopedia of Populism in America: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 86. "Bourbon Democrats were a combination of several constituencies including southerners, political and fiscal conservatives, and classical liberals."
- ^
Peskin, Allan (1984).
"Who Were the Stalwarts? Who Were Their Rivals? Republican Factions in the Gilded Age"
.
Political Science Quarterly
.
99
(4): 703?716.
doi
:
10.2307/2150708
.
ISSN
0032-3195
.
JSTOR
2150708
.
- ^
a
b
Brady, David; Stewart, Joseph (1982).
"Congressional Party Realignment and Transformations of Public Policy in Three Realignment Eras"
.
American Journal of Political Science
.
26
(2): 333?360.
doi
:
10.2307/2111043
.
ISSN
0092-5853
.
JSTOR
2111043
.
- ^
Kennedy, David M. (May 1, 1975).
"Overview: The Progressive Era"
.
The Historian
.
37
(3): 453?468.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1540-6563.1975.tb00037.x
.
ISSN
0018-2370
.
- ^
a
b
McDonagh, Eileen L. (1993).
"The "Welfare Rights State" and the "Civil Rights State": Policy Paradox and State Building in the Progressive Era"
.
Studies in American Political Development
.
7
(2): 225?274.
doi
:
10.1017/S0898588X00001103
.
ISSN
1469-8692
.
S2CID
142998070
.
- ^
Leonard, Thomas (2005).
"Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era"
(PDF)
.
Journal of Economic Perspectives
.
19
(4): 207?224.
doi
:
10.1257/089533005775196642
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 20 August 2017
. Retrieved
22 October
2017
.
- ^
Hoffmann, Stanley (1995).
"The Crisis of Liberal Internationalism"
.
Foreign Policy
(98): 159?177.
doi
:
10.2307/1148964
.
ISSN
0015-7228
.
JSTOR
1148964
.
- ^
a
b
Hwang, Grace (August 5, 2021).
"Examining Extremism: U.S. Militant Anarchists"
.
Center for Strategic & International Studies
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Coben, Stanley (1964).
"A Study in Nativism: The American Red Scare of 1919-20"
.
Political Science Quarterly
.
79
(1): 52?75.
doi
:
10.2307/2146574
.
ISSN
0032-3195
.
JSTOR
2146574
.
- ^
Darnton, Christopher (2018).
"Archives and Inference: Documentary Evidence in Case Study Research and the Debate over U.S. Entry into World War II"
.
International Security
.
42
(3): 84?126.
doi
:
10.1162/ISEC_a_00306
.
S2CID
57570469
.
- ^
Leff, Mark H. (1991).
"The Politics of Sacrifice on the American Home Front in World War II"
.
The Journal of American History
.
77
(4): 1296?1318.
doi
:
10.2307/2078263
.
ISSN
0021-8723
.
JSTOR
2078263
.
- ^
Chasse, Daniel Speich (2014). "Towards a Global History of the Marshall Plan. European Post-War Reconstruction and the Rise of Development Economic Expertise". In Grabas, Christian; Nutzenadel, Alexander (eds.).
Industrial Policy in Europe after 1945
. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 187?212.
doi
:
10.1057/9781137329905_9
.
ISBN
978-1-137-32990-5
.
- ^
a
b
c
Gunitsky, Seva (August 12, 2017).
"These are the three reasons fascism spread in 1930s America ? and might spread again today"
.
The Washington Post
.
- ^
a
b
Kramer, Mark (1999).
"Ideology and the Cold War"
.
Review of International Studies
.
25
(4): 539?576.
doi
:
10.1017/S0260210599005392
.
ISSN
1469-9044
.
S2CID
155354623
.
- ^
a
b
Haynes, John Earl (2000). "The Cold War Debate Continues: A Traditionalist View of Historical Writing on Domestic Communism and Anti-Communism".
Journal of Cold War Studies
.
2
(1): 76?115.
doi
:
10.1162/15203970051032381
.
S2CID
57563321
.
- ^
a
b
Boot, Max (2004).
"Neocons"
.
Foreign Policy
(140): 20?28.
doi
:
10.2307/4147516
.
ISSN
0015-7228
.
JSTOR
4147516
.
- ^
Schreiber, E. M. (1976).
"Anti-War Demonstrations and American Public Opinion on the War in Vietnam"
.
The British Journal of Sociology
.
27
(2): 225?236.
doi
:
10.2307/590029
.
JSTOR
590029
.
- ^
Kelley, John L. (1997).
Bringing the Market Back In
. Springer. pp. 109?110.
ISBN
978-0-230-37270-2
.
- ^
Stanley, Harold W. (2006). "Presidential Elections and the South". In Steed, Robert P.; Moreland, Laurence W. (eds.).
Writing Southern Politics: Contemporary Interpretations and Future Directions
. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 219?240.
ISBN
9780813171432
.
- ^
Burrell, Kristopher B. (2012). "Where From Here? Ideological Perspectives on the Future of the Civil Rights Movement, 1964-1966".
Western Journal of Black Studies
.
36
(2).
- ^
Nicol, Donna J. (February 17, 2022).
"Racism and the roots of conservative philanthropy in the US"
.
Al Jazeera
. Retrieved
July 18,
2023
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Phillips-Fein, Kim (December 1, 2011).
"Conservatism: A State of the Field"
.
Journal of American History
.
98
(3): 723?743.
doi
:
10.1093/jahist/jar430
.
ISSN
0021-8723
.
- ^
Reichley, A. James (1982).
"The Reagan Coalition"
.
The Brookings Review
.
1
(2): 6?9.
doi
:
10.2307/20079772
.
ISSN
0745-1253
.
JSTOR
20079772
.
- ^
Himmelstein, Jerome L.; McRae, James A. (1984).
"Social Conservatism, New Republicans, and the 1980 Election"
.
The Public Opinion Quarterly
.
48
(3): 592?605.
doi
:
10.1086/268860
.
ISSN
0033-362X
.
JSTOR
2748946
.
- ^
a
b
Webb Hammond, Susan (1998).
Congressional Caucuses in National Policymaking
. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. x.
ISBN
9780801856822
.
- ^
Driver, Stephen (July 30, 2018).
North Atlantic drift: Welfare reform and the 'Third Way' politics of New Labour and the New Democrats
. Manchester University Press.
ISBN
978-1-5261-3788-3
.
- ^
McGlinchey, Stephen (2010).
"Neoconservatism and American Foreign Policy"
.
Politikon: The IAPSS Journal of Political Science
.
16
: 21?33.
doi
:
10.22151/politikon.16.2
.
ISSN
2414-6633
.
- ^
Maney, Gregory M.; Woehrle, Lynne M.; Coy, Patrick G. (2009).
"Ideological Consistency and Contextual Adaptation: U.S. Peace Movement Emotional Work Before and After 9/11"
.
American Behavioral Scientist
.
53
(1): 114?132.
doi
:
10.1177/0002764209338789
.
ISSN
0002-7642
.
S2CID
145350517
.
- ^
Wingo, Ajume (2007).
"To love your country as your mother: Patriotism after 9/11"
.
Theory and Research in Education
.
5
(1): 23?40.
doi
:
10.1177/1477878507073605
.
ISSN
1477-8785
.
S2CID
154614623
.
- ^
Trubowitz, Peter; Seo, Jungkun (2012).
"The China Card: Playing Politics with Sino-American Relations"
.
Political Science Quarterly
.
127
(2): 189?211.
doi
:
10.1002/j.1538-165X.2012.tb00724.x
.
ISSN
0032-3195
.
JSTOR
41503281
.
- ^
Sherkat, Darren E. (2017).
"Intersecting Identities and Support for Same-sex Marriage in the United States"
.
Social Currents
.
4
(4): 380?400.
doi
:
10.1177/2329496516663221
.
ISSN
2329-4965
.
S2CID
152227435
.
- ^
Stone, Lyman (2023).
"Now Political Polarization Comes for Marriage Prospects"
. The Atlantic.
- ^
Gravelle, Timothy B. (January 13, 2016).
"Party Identification, Contact, Contexts, and Public Attitudes toward Illegal Immigration"
.
Public Opinion Quarterly
.
80
(1): 1?25.
doi
:
10.1093/poq/nfv054
.
PMC
4884820
.
PMID
27257305
.
- ^
Kerr, John; Panagopoulos, Costas; van der Linden, Sander (2021).
"Political polarization on COVID-19 pandemic response in the United States"
.
Personality and Individual Differences
.
179
: 110892.
doi
:
10.1016/j.paid.2021.110892
.
PMC
8631569
.
PMID
34866723
.
- ^
Ekins, Emily (September 26, 2011).
"Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian?"
.
Reason
.
Archived
from the original on May 11, 2012
. Retrieved
July 16,
2012
.
- ^
Michelle Boorstein (October 5, 2010).
"Tea party, religious right often overlap, poll shows"
.
The Washington Post
.
Archived
from the original on April 7, 2019
. Retrieved
June 9,
2019
.
- ^
Peter Wallsten; Danny Yadron (September 29, 2010).
"Tea-Party Movement Gathers Strength"
.
The Wall Street Journal
.
Archived
from the original on September 13, 2018
. Retrieved
June 9,
2019
.
- ^
Arceneaux, Kevin; Nicholson, Stephen P. (September 27, 2012).
"Who Wants to Have a Tea Party? The Who, What, and Why of the Tea Party Movement"
.
PS: Political Science & Politics
.
45
(4): 700?710.
doi
:
10.1017/S1049096512000741
.
ISSN
1049-0965
.
S2CID
54051521
.
- ^
Good, Chris (October 6, 2010).
"On Social Issues, Tea Partiers Are Not Libertarians"
.
The Atlantic
. Retrieved
September 25,
2018
.
- ^
Jonsson, Patrik (November 15, 2010).
"Tea party groups push GOP to quit culture wars, focus on deficit"
.
Christian Science Monitor
. Retrieved
September 25,
2018
.
- ^
Gallup: Tea Party's top concerns are debt, size of government
The Hill
, July 5, 2010
- ^
Rohlinger, Deana A.; Bunnage, Leslie (May 17, 2017).
"Did the Tea Party Movement Fuel the Trump-Train? The Role of Social Media in Activist Persistence and Political Change in the 21st Century"
.
Social Media + Society
.
3
(2): 205630511770678.
doi
:
10.1177/2056305117706786
.
ISSN
2056-3051
.
S2CID
148970938
.
- ^
a
b
c
Greven, Thomas (May 2016).
The Rise of Right-wing Populism in Europe and the United States
(PDF)
(Report).
Friedrich Ebert Stiftung
.
- ^
a
b
Becker, Bernie (February 13, 2016).
"Trump's 6 populist positions"
.
POLITICO
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Berlet, Chip; Sunshine, Spencer (April 16, 2019).
"Rural rage: the roots of right-wing populism in the United States"
.
The Journal of Peasant Studies
.
46
(3): 480?513.
doi
:
10.1080/03066150.2019.1572603
.
ISSN
0306-6150
.
S2CID
164664623
.
- ^
Albertson, Bethany; Guiler, Kimberly (2020).
"Conspiracy theories, election rigging, and support for democratic norms"
.
Research & Politics
.
7
(3): 205316802095985.
doi
:
10.1177/2053168020959859
.
ISSN
2053-1680
.
S2CID
222080678
.
- ^
Lieberman, Robert C.; Mettler, Suzanne; Pepinsky, Thomas B.; Roberts, Kenneth M.; Valelly, Richard (2019).
"The Trump Presidency and American Democracy: A Historical and Comparative Analysis"
.
Perspectives on Politics
.
17
(2): 470?479.
doi
:
10.1017/S1537592718003286
.
ISSN
1537-5927
.
S2CID
150047038
.
- ^
Barkun, Michael (May 4, 2017).
"President Trump and the "Fringe"
"
.
Terrorism and Political Violence
.
29
(3): 437?443.
doi
:
10.1080/09546553.2017.1313649
.
ISSN
0954-6553
.
S2CID
152199771
.
- ^
Farhi, Paul; Izadi, Elahe (November 19, 2020).
"Rudy Giuliani floated 'dangerous' and incendiary false claims of election conspiracy ? and Fox News broadcast it live"
.
The Washington Post
.
- ^
Karavasilis, Lazaros (2018). "Is Left-Wing Populism Still Relevant?".
The New Pretender
.
- ^
Traub, James (May 7, 2021).
"America Is Becoming a Social Democracy"
.
Foreign Policy
. Retrieved
September 6,
2022
.
- ^
Merelli, Annalisa (February 23, 2020).
"Bernie Sanders isn't a democratic socialist. He is a social democrat"
.
Quartz
. Retrieved
September 6,
2022
.
- ^
Conover, Pamela Johnston; Feldman, Stanley (1981).
"The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/Conservative Self-Identifications"
.
American Journal of Political Science
.
25
(4): 617?645.
doi
:
10.2307/2110756
.
ISSN
0092-5853
.
JSTOR
2110756
.
- ^
Smith, Tom W. (January 1, 1990).
"Liberal and Conservative Trends in the United States Since World War II"
.
Public Opinion Quarterly
.
54
(4): 479?507.
doi
:
10.1086/269224
.
ISSN
0033-362X
.
- ^
Treier, Shawn; Hillygus, D. Sunshine (January 1, 2009).
"The Nature of Political Ideology in the Contemporary Electorate"
.
Public Opinion Quarterly
.
73
(4): 679?703.
doi
:
10.1093/poq/nfp067
.
ISSN
0033-362X
.
- ^
Chen, Daniel L.; Lind, Jo Thori (August 14, 2019).
"The Political Economy of Beliefs: Why Fiscal and Social Conservatives/Liberals Come Hand-in-hand"
. Rochester, NY.
doi
:
10.2139/ssrn.2928766
.
S2CID
73703687
.
SSRN
2928766
.
- ^
Miller, Gary; Schofield, Norman (August 18, 2008).
"The Transformation of the Republican and Democratic Party Coalitions in the U.S."
Perspectives on Politics
.
6
(3): 433?450.
doi
:
10.1017/S1537592708081218
.
ISSN
1541-0986
.
S2CID
145321253
.
- ^
Hirano, Shigeo; Snyder, James M. (2007).
"The Decline of Third-Party Voting in the United States"
.
The Journal of Politics
.
69
(1): 1?16.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00490.x
.
ISSN
0022-3816
.
S2CID
43347566
.
- ^
"Conservatism and the Rise of Ronald Reagan"
.
countrystudies.us
. U.S. Department of State.
- ^
Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew N. (2021). "Right-Wing Populism in America". In Chorbajian, Levon (ed.).
Power and Inequality: Critical Readings for a New Era
.
Routledge
.
ISBN
9781315201511
.
- ^
Busch, Andrew E. (January 1, 2012).
"Social Conservatives and Economic Conservatives"
.
Society
.
49
(1): 13?23.
doi
:
10.1007/s12115-011-9498-4
.
ISSN
1936-4725
.
S2CID
143382335
.
- ^
Noonan, Michael P. (September 1, 1999).
"Conservative opinions on U.S. foreign policy"
.
Orbis
.
43
(4): 621?632.
doi
:
10.1016/S0030-4387(99)80010-6
.
ISSN
0030-4387
.
- ^
Kristol, William; Kagan, Robert (1996).
"Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy"
.
Foreign Affairs
.
75
(4): 18.
doi
:
10.2307/20047656
.
JSTOR
20047656
.
- ^
Rathbun, Brian C. (2008).
"Does One Right Make a Realist? Conservatism, Neoconservatism, and Isolationism in the Foreign Policy Ideology of American Elites"
.
Political Science Quarterly
.
123
(2): 271?299.
doi
:
10.1002/j.1538-165X.2008.tb00625.x
.
ISSN
0032-3195
.
JSTOR
20203012
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Saad, Lydia (January 17, 2022).
"U.S. Political Ideology Steady; Conservatives, Moderates Tie"
.
Gallup.com
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Schaeffer, Katherine.
"State of the Union 2022: How Americans view major national issues"
.
Pew Research Center
. Retrieved
April 15,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
c
Blake, Aaron (April 8, 2015).
"The 10 most loyal demographic groups for Republicans and Democrats"
.
The Washington Post
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Giridharadas, Anand (April 14, 2021).
"Welcome to the New Progressive Era"
.
The Atlantic
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Starr, P. (2007). War and Liberalism. The New Republic, 236, 21?24.
- ^
a
b
c
Starr, Paul (2012). "Center-Left Liberalism". In Coates, David; Smith, Kathy (eds.).
The Oxford Companion to American Politics
.
Oxford University Press
.
- ^
Yglesias, Matthew (July 26, 2019).
"Democrats should run on the popular progressive ideas, but not the unpopular ones"
.
Vox
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Quinn, Adam; Cox, Michael (October 1, 2007).
"For Better, for Worse: How America's Foreign Policy became Wedded to Liberal Universalism"
.
Global Society
.
21
(4): 499?519.
doi
:
10.1080/13600820701562728
.
ISSN
1360-0826
.
S2CID
143698767
.
- ^
Mowle, Thomas S. (2003).
"Worldviews in Foreign Policy: Realism, Liberalism, and External Conflict"
.
Political Psychology
.
24
(3): 561?592.
doi
:
10.1111/0162-895X.00341
.
ISSN
0162-895X
.
- ^
Ikenberry, G. John; Kupchan, Charles A. (2004).
"Liberal Realism: The Foundations of a Democratic Foreign Policy"
.
The National Interest
(77): 38?49.
ISSN
0884-9382
.
JSTOR
42895689
.
- ^
Jackson, Van (October 11, 2022).
"Left of Liberal Internationalism: Grand Strategies within Progressive Foreign Policy Thought"
.
Security Studies
.
31
(4): 553?592.
doi
:
10.1080/09636412.2022.2132874
.
ISSN
0963-6412
.
S2CID
252868662
.
- ^
"New York State History: Patriots, Loyalists, Moderates"
.
Standish Library
. Siena College
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Hitchcock, William S. (1973).
"Southern Moderates and Secession: Senator Robert M. T. Hunter's Call for Union"
.
The Journal of American History
.
59
(4): 871?884.
doi
:
10.2307/1918366
.
ISSN
0021-8723
.
JSTOR
1918366
.
- ^
Lyons, Philip B. (2014).
Statesmanship and Reconstruction: Moderate versus Radical Republicans on Restoring the Union after the Civil War
. Lexington Books. pp. 313?314.
ISBN
9780739185087
.
- ^
Pach, Chester J. (October 4, 2016).
"Dwight D. Eisenhower: Domestic Affairs"
.
Miller Center
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Ball, Molly (May 15, 2014).
"Moderates: Who Are They, and What Do They Want?"
.
The Atlantic
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Drutman, Lee (September 24, 2019).
"The Moderate Middle Is A Myth"
.
FiveThirtyEight
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Klein, Ezra (July 8, 2014).
"No one's less moderate than moderates"
.
Vox
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Laqueur, Walter (1996).
Fascism: Past, Present, Future
. Oxford University Press. p. 17.
ISBN
9780195117936
.
- ^
Greene, Daniel; Newport, Frank (April 23, 2018).
"American Public Opinion and the Holocaust"
.
Gallup.com
. Retrieved
April 5,
2022
.
- ^
"The United States and the Holocaust"
.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
. December 8, 2017
. Retrieved
April 5,
2022
.
- ^
"German American Bund"
.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
. Retrieved
April 16,
2022
.
- ^
Pappas, Stephanie (August 17, 2017).
"Psychology of Hate: What Motivates White Supremacists?"
.
Live Science
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Jayson, Sharon (August 23, 2017).
"What Makes People Join Hate Groups?"
.
U.S. News & World Report
.
- ^
Langer, Gary (August 21, 2017).
"1 in 10 say it's acceptable to hold neo-Nazi views (POLL)"
.
ABC News
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Woodword, Alex (February 7, 2020).
"FBI raises neo-Nazi threat level to same as Isis"
.
The Independent
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Daniels, Mitch (July 11, 2021).
"Opinion | Tossing around 'Nazi' and 'fascist' as insults is reckless and historically illiterate"
.
The Washington Post
.
ISSN
0190-8286
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Matthews, Dylan (October 23, 2020).
"Is Trump a fascist? 8 experts weigh in"
.
Vox
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Barlow, Rich (February 11, 2022).
"Are Trump Republicans Fascists?"
.
Boston University
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Maine, Thomas J. (2018).
The Rise of the Alt-Right
. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 8.
ISBN
978-0815732884
.
- ^
Love, Nancy S. (2017).
"Back to the Future: Trendy Fascism, the Trump Effect, and the Alt-Right"
.
New Political Science
.
39
(2): 263?268.
doi
:
10.1080/07393148.2017.1301321
.
S2CID
152136843
. Retrieved
October 14,
2022
.
- ^
Ball, Molly (August 18, 2013).
"America's Libertarian Moment"
.
The Atlantic
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Kiley, Jocelyn (August 25, 2014).
"In search of libertarians"
.
Pew Research Center
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Goodman, Joseph (November 7, 2013).
"Libertarians By the Numbers: A Demographic, Religious, and Political Profile"
.
Public Religion Research Institute
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Young, J.T. (April 28, 2021).
"Libertarians elected Biden"
.
The Hill
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
"Loyalists"
.
George Washington's Mount Vernon
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Scheuerman, William E. (2005).
"American Kingship? Monarchical Origins of Modern Presidentialism"
.
Polity
.
37
(1): 24?53.
doi
:
10.1057/palgrave.polity.2300001
.
hdl
:
10469/14228
.
JSTOR
3877061
.
S2CID
144479722
.
- ^
Dunbar, Louise Burnham (1922).
A Study of Monarchical Tendencies in the United States from 1776 to 1801
. Cornell University. pp. 51?65.
ISBN
9780598902146
.
- ^
Gray, Rosie (February 10, 2017).
"Behind the Internet's Anti-Democracy Movement"
.
The Atlantic
.
Archived
from the original on January 22, 2022
. Retrieved
October 15,
2022
.
- ^
Cooper, Luke (June 23, 2021). "
'I Will Protect You'
".
Authoritarian Contagion: The Global Threat to Democracy
. Bristol University Press. p. 64.
ISBN
978-1529217797
.
- ^
Lee, Michael J.; Atchison, R. Jarrod (2022).
We Are Not One People: Secession and Separatism in American Politics Since 1776
. Oxford University Press. pp. 9?10.
ISBN
9780190876500
.
- ^
"Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1868)"
.
Justia Law
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Pattani, Aneri (January 29, 2021).
"Texas can't legally secede from the U.S., despite popular myth"
.
The Texas Tribune
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Abbott, Carl (September 10, 2015). "Cascadian Dreams".
Imagined Frontiers: Contemporary America and Beyond
. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 125?133.
ISBN
978-0806148366
.
- ^
Pollon, Christopher (September 17, 2021).
"The Pacific Northwest, strong and free: On the inevitable rise of Cascadia"
.
The Globe and Mail
.
Archived
from the original on March 1, 2022
. Retrieved
October 16,
2022
.
- ^
Belew, Kathleen (April 9, 2018).
Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America
. Harvard University Press. p. 161.
ISBN
978-0674286078
.
- ^
Schlatter, Evelyn A. (October 1, 2006).
Aryan Cowboys: White Supremacists and the Search for a New Frontier, 1970?2000
. University of Texas Press. pp. 64?65.
ISBN
978-0292714717
.
- ^
"Why Puerto Rico has debated U.S. statehood since its colonization"
.
National Geographic
. July 24, 2020. Archived from
the original
on February 24, 2021
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Trask, Haunani-Kay (2000).
"Native Social Capital: The Case of Hawaiian Sovereignty and Ka Lahui Hawaii"
.
Policy Sciences
.
33
(3/4): 375?385.
doi
:
10.1023/A:1004870517612
.
ISSN
0032-2687
.
JSTOR
4532510
.
S2CID
152872242
.
- ^
"Alaskan Independence Party - Membership"
.
www.akip.org
. 2006
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Gale, William G.; West, Darrell M. (December 13, 2021).
"How seriously should we take talk of US state secession?"
.
Brookings
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Naughtie, Andrew (July 15, 2021).
"Poll shows most Republicans in US south would back secession"
.
The Independent
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Feagin, Joe R. (1971).
"White Separatists and Black Separatists: A Comparative Analysis"
.
Social Problems
.
19
(2): 167?180.
doi
:
10.2307/799482
.
JSTOR
799482
.
- ^
Sinclair, Upton
(January 1, 1918).
Upton Sinclair's: A Monthly Magazine: for Social Justice, by Peaceful Means If Possible
.
Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.'
- ^
Horvat, Branko
(2000).
"Social ownership"
. In
Michie, Jonathan
(ed.).
Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences, Volume 1
. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 1515?1516.
ISBN
9781135932268
. Retrieved
October 15,
2021
.
Just as private ownership defines capitalism, social ownership defines socialism. The essential characteristic of socialism in theory is that it destroys social hierarchies, and therefore leads to a politically and economically egalitarian society. Two closely related consequences follow. First, every individual is entitled to an equal ownership share that earns an aliquot part of the total social dividend…Second, in order to eliminate social hierarchy in the workplace, enterprises are run by those employed, and not by the representatives of private or state capital. Thus, the well-known historical tendency of the divorce between ownership and management is brought to an end. The society?i.e. every individual equally?owns capital and those who work are entitled to manage their own economic affairs.
- ^
"Eugene Debs | American Experience"
.
PBS
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Fine, Sidney (1955).
"Anarchism and the Assassination of McKinley"
.
The American Historical Review
.
60
(4): 777?799.
doi
:
10.2307/1844919
.
ISSN
0002-8762
.
JSTOR
1844919
.
- ^
"President Truman, Rear Platform Remarks, Syracuse, New York"
.
Harry S. Truman Library & Museum
. Syracuse, NY. October 10, 1952.
- ^
"The Making of the New Left"
.
The New Yorker
. March 12, 2021
. Retrieved
March 27,
2022
.
- ^
Salmon, Felix (June 25, 2021).
"America's continued move toward socialism"
.
Axios
. Retrieved
March 27,
2022
.
- ^
"Democratic Socialists of America"
.
dsausa.org
. Retrieved
March 27,
2022
.
- ^
Kurtzleben, Danielle; Malone, Kenny (July 26, 2018).
"What You Need To Know About The Democratic Socialists Of America"
.
NPR
. Retrieved
March 27,
2022
.
- ^
Krugman, Paul (February 13, 2020).
"Bernie Sanders Isn't a Socialist"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Wilkinson, Will (August 16, 2018).
"
"Socialism" vs. "capitalism" is a false dichotomy"
.
Vox
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Rivero, Daniel (October 1, 2013).
"Why Calling Obamacare 'Socialism' Makes No Sense [Analysis]"
.
ABC News
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
Newport, Frank (October 4, 2018).
"The Meaning of "Socialism" to Americans Today"
.
Gallup
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
"Americans' Views of 'Socialism' and 'Capitalism' In Their Own Words"
.
Pew Research Center
. October 7, 2019
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Igielnik, Ruth (August 18, 2020).
"Men and women in the U.S. continue to differ in voter turnout rate, party identification"
.
Pew Research Center
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Lizotte, Mary-Kate (November 1, 2017).
"Gender Differences in American Political Behavior"
.
Scholars Strategy Network
.
- ^
Gothreau, Claire (May 20, 2021).
"How Gender Shapes Public Opinion in American Politics"
.
Center for American Women and Politics
. Rutgers University.
- ^
Bittner, Amanda; Goodyear-Grant, Elizabeth (December 1, 2017).
"Sex isn't Gender: Reforming Concepts and Measurements in the Study of Public Opinion"
.
Political Behavior
.
39
(4): 1019?1041.
doi
:
10.1007/s11109-017-9391-y
.
ISSN
1573-6687
.
S2CID
151970411
.
- ^
Hutchings, Vincent L.; Valentino, Nicholas A. (May 17, 2004).
"The Centrality of Race in American Politics"
.
Annual Review of Political Science
.
7
(1): 383?408.
doi
:
10.1146/annurev.polisci.7.012003.104859
.
ISSN
1094-2939
.
S2CID
145086598
.
- ^
Nakanishi, Don T. (January 1, 1985).
"Asian American Politics: An Agenda for Research"
.
Amerasia Journal
.
12
(2): 1?27.
doi
:
10.17953/amer.12.2.kp86641418148575
.
ISSN
0044-7471
.
- ^
Koch, Jeffrey W. (2017).
"Partisanship and Non-Partisanship Among American Indians"
.
American Politics Research
.
45
(4): 673?691.
doi
:
10.1177/1532673X16637122
.
ISSN
1532-673X
.
S2CID
155523781
.
- ^
Peterson, Johnathan C.; Smith, Kevin B.; Hibbing, John R. (April 1, 2020).
"Do People Really Become More Conservative as They Age?"
.
The Journal of Politics
.
82
(2): 600?611.
doi
:
10.1086/706889
.
ISSN
0022-3816
.
S2CID
211393997
.
- ^
Lau, Richard R.; Redlawsk, DavidP. (2008).
"Older but Wiser? Effects of Age on Political Cognition"
.
The Journal of Politics
.
70
(1): 168?185.
doi
:
10.1017/s0022381607080127
.
ISSN
0022-3816
.
JSTOR
10.1017/s0022381607080127
.
S2CID
53322533
.
- ^
"Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics"
.
Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project
. 2014
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Driskell, Robyn; Embry, Elizabeth; Lyon, Larry (2008).
"Faith and Politics: The Influence of Religious Beliefs on Political Participation"
.
Social Science Quarterly
.
89
(2): 294?314.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1540-6237.2008.00533.x
.
ISSN
0038-4941
.
JSTOR
42956315
.
- ^
LaMothe, Ryan Williams (February 1, 2012).
"Varieties of Political-religious Experiences"
.
Pastoral Psychology
.
61
(1): 47?61.
doi
:
10.1007/s11089-011-0383-2
.
ISSN
1573-6679
.
S2CID
144473938
.
- ^
Dallas, Kelsey (October 30, 2018).
"Why the relationship between religion and politics is more complicated than you think"
.
Deseret News
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
"Ideological Gap Widens Between More, Less Educated Adults"
.
Pew Research Center
. April 26, 2016
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Harris, Adam (November 7, 2018).
"America Is Divided by Education"
.
The Atlantic
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Callahan, David (November 8, 2012).
"Why the Most Educated Americans Vote Democratic"
.
Demos
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Cox, Daniel A.; Abrams, Samuel J. (February 16, 2022).
"Conservatives, don't give up on going to college. Work to reform higher education"
.
USA TODAY
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Gross, Neil (May 13, 2016).
"Opinion | Why Are the Highly Educated So Liberal?"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
March 26,
2022
.
- ^
Goldfarb, Michael (July 20, 2010).
"Liberal? Are we talking about the same thing?"
.
BBC News
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Hamilton, Andrew (2019).
"Conservatism"
.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
. Retrieved
March 24,
2022
.
- ^
O'Neil, Patrick H.; Fields, Karl; Share, Don (2017).
Cases in Comparative Politics
(6th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 127?131.
ISBN
978-0-393-62459-5
.
- ^
Banning, Lance (1974).
"Republican Ideology and the Triumph of the Constitution, 1789 to 1793"
.
The William and Mary Quarterly
.
31
(2): 168?188.
doi
:
10.2307/1920908
.
ISSN
0043-5597
.
JSTOR
1920908
.
- ^
Goldman, Samuel (September 22, 2021).
"The U.S. has more in common with South America than Europe"
.
The Week
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Guardiola-Rivera, Oscar (December 11, 2010).
"The United States of Latin America"
.
The Globalist
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Dobbins, James (2003).
America;s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq
. RAND Corporation. pp. 1?2.
ISBN
0-8330-3460-X
.
- ^
a
b
Poloni-Staudinger, Lori M.; Wolf, Michael R. (2019).
American Difference: A Guide to American Politics in Comparative Perspective
(2nd ed.).
SAGE Publishing
. pp. 1?5.
ISBN
9781483344362
.
- ^
a
b
c
Silver, Laura (October 16, 2019).
"Where Americans and Europeans agree ? and differ ? in the values they see as important"
.
Pew Research Center
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Tharoor, Ishaan (April 30, 2021).
"American politics are getting more European"
.
The Washington Post
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Kuper, Simon (May 20, 2021).
"Why the US is becoming more European"
.
Financial Times
. Retrieved
March 25,
2022
.
- ^
Brechenmacher, Saskia (June 2018).
Comparing Democratic Distress in the United States and Europe
(PDF)
(Report).
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]