Scientific study of politics
Political science
is the
scientific
study of
politics
. It is a
social science
dealing with systems of
governance
and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought,
political behavior
, and associated
constitutions
and
laws
.
[1]
Modern political science can generally be divided into the three sub-disciplines:
comparative politics
,
international relations
, and
political theory
.
[2]
History
[
edit
]
Origin
[
edit
]
Political science is a social science dealing with systems of
governance
and power, and the analysis of political activities, political institutions, political thought and behavior, and associated
constitutions
and
laws
.
[3]
As a social science, contemporary political science started to take shape in the latter half of the 19th century and began to separate itself from political
philosophy
and history.
[4]
Into the late 19th century, it was still uncommon for political science to be considered a distinct field from history.
[4]
The term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy, and the modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents including moral philosophy, political economy,
political theology
, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state.
[
citation needed
]
Generally, classical
political philosophy
is primarily defined by a concern for
Hellenic
and
Enlightenment
thought,
[5]
political scientists are also marked by a great concern for "
modernity
" and the contemporary
nation state
, along with the study of classical thought, and as such share more terminology with
sociologists
(e.g.,
structure and agency
).
[6]
The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th century. The designation "political scientist" is commonly used to denote someone with a doctorate or master's degree in the field.
[7]
Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both
normative
and
positive
political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The
American Political Science Association
and the
American Political Science Review
were founded in 1903 and 1906, respectively, in an effort to distinguish the study of
politics
from economics and other social phenomena. APSA membership rose from 204 in 1904 to 1,462 in 1915.
[4]
APSA members played a key role in setting up political science departments that were distinct from history, philosophy, law, sociology, and economics.
[4]
The journal
Political Science Quarterly
was established in 1886 by the Academy of Political Science. In the inaugural issue of
Political Science Quarterly
,
Munroe Smith
defined political science as "the science of the state. Taken in this sense, it includes the organization and functions of the state, and the relation of states one to another."
[8]
As part of a UNESCO initiative to promote political science in the late 1940s, the International Political Science Association was founded in 1949, as well as national associations in France in 1949, Britain in 1950, and West Germany in 1951.
[4]
Behavioral revolution and new institutionalism
[
edit
]
In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioral revolution stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of individual and group behavior swept the discipline. A focus on studying political behavior, rather than institutions or interpretation of legal texts, characterized early behavioral political science, including work by
Robert Dahl
,
Philip Converse
, and in the collaboration between sociologist
Paul Lazarsfeld
and public opinion scholar
Bernard Berelson
.
[
citation needed
]
The late 1960s and early 1970s witnessed a takeoff in the use of deductive,
game-theoretic
formal modelling techniques aimed at generating a more analytical corpus of knowledge in the discipline. This period saw a surge of research that borrowed theory and methods from economics to study political institutions, such as the United States Congress, as well as political behavior, such as voting.
William H. Riker
and his colleagues and students at the
University of Rochester
were the main proponents of this shift.
[
citation needed
]
Despite considerable research progress in the discipline based on all types of scholarship discussed above, scholars have noted that progress toward systematic theory has been modest and uneven.
[9]
21st century
[
edit
]
In 2000, the
Perestroika Movement
in political science was introduced as a reaction against what supporters of the movement called the mathematicization of political science. Those who identified with the movement argued for a plurality of methodologies and approaches in political science and for more relevance of the discipline to those outside of it.
[10]
Some
evolutionary psychology
theories argue that humans have evolved a highly developed set of psychological mechanisms for dealing with politics. However, these mechanisms evolved for dealing with the small group politics that characterized the ancestral environment and not the much larger political structures in today's world. This is argued to explain many important features and systematic
cognitive biases
of current politics.
[11]
Overview
[
edit
]
Political science is a social study concerning the allocation and transfer of
power
in
decision making
, the roles and systems of governance including
governments
and
international organizations
, political behaviour, and
public policies
. It measures the success of
governance
and specific policies by examining many factors, including
stability
,
justice
,
material wealth
,
peace
, and
public health
. Some political scientists seek to advance
positive
theses (which attempt to describe how things are, as opposed to how they should be) by analysing politics; others advance
normative
theses, such as by making specific policy recommendations. The study of politics and policies can be closely connected?for example, in comparative analyses of which types of political institutions tend to produce certain types of policies.
[12]
Political science provides analysis and predictions about political and governmental issues.
[13]
Political scientists examine the processes, systems and political dynamics of countries and regions of the world, often to raise public awareness or to influence specific governments.
[13]
Political scientists may provide the frameworks from which journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the
electorate
analyze issues. According to Chaturvedy,
Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties, or as civil servants. They may be involved with
non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to
corporations
. Private enterprises such as
think tanks
, research institutes, polling and
public relations
firms often employ political scientists.
[14]
Country-specific studies
[
edit
]
Political scientists may study political phenomena within one specific country. For example, they may study just the
politics of the United States
[15]
or just the
politics of China
.
[16]
Political scientists look at a variety of data, including constitutions,
elections
,
public opinion
, and
public policy
,
foreign policy
, legislatures, and judiciaries. Political scientists will often focus on the politics of their own country; for example, a political scientist from Indonesia may become an expert in the politics of Indonesia.
[17]
Anticipating crises
[
edit
]
The theory of political transitions,
[18]
and the methods of analyzing and anticipating
[19]
crises,
[20]
form an important part of political science. Several general indicators of crises and methods were proposed for anticipating critical transitions.
[21]
Among them, one statistical indicator of crisis, a simultaneous increase of
variance
and
correlations
in large groups, was proposed for crisis anticipation and may be successfully used in various areas.
[22]
Its applicability for early diagnosis of political crises was demonstrated by the analysis of the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years.
[23]
A feature shared by certain major revolutions is that they were not predicted. The theory of apparent inevitability of crises and revolutions was also developed.
[24]
The study of major crises, both political crises and external crises that can affect politics, is not limited to attempts to predict regime transitions or major changes in political institutions. Political scientists also study how governments handle unexpected disasters, and how voters in democracies react to their governments' preparations for and responses to crises.
[25]
Research methods
[
edit
]
Political science is
methodologically
diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology,
social research
, political philosophy, and many others, in addition to those that developed chiefly within the field of political science.
Political scientists approach the study of politics from a host of different ontological orientations and with a variety of different tools. Because political science is essentially a study of
human behavior
, in all aspects of
politics
, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though
experimental
methods are increasingly common (see
experimental political science
).
[26]
Citing this difficulty, former
American Political Science Association
President
Lawrence Lowell
once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science."
[19]
Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behaviour in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.
Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious choices, unlike other subjects, such as non-human organisms in
biology
, minerals in
geoscience
, chemical elements in
chemistry
, stars in
astronomy
, or particles in
physics
. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics, and
methodological
pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary political science.
Empirical political science methods include the use of field experiments,
[27]
surveys and survey experiments,
[28]
case studies,
[29]
process tracing,
[30]
[31]
historical and institutional analysis,
[32]
ethnography,
[33]
participant observation,
[34]
and interview research.
[35]
Political scientists also use and develop theoretical tools like game theory and agent-based models to study a host of political systems and situations.
[36]
Other approaches include the study of equation-based models and opinion dynamics.
[37]
Political theorists approach theories of political phenomena with a similar diversity of positions and tools, including
feminist political theory
, historical analysis associated with the
Cambridge school
, and
Straussian approaches
.
Political science may overlap with topics of study that are the traditional focuses of other social sciences?for example, when sociological
norms
or psychological
biases
are connected to political phenomena. In these cases, political science may either inherit their methods of study or develop a contrasting approach.
[38]
For example,
Lisa Wedeen
has argued that political science's approach to the idea of culture, originating with
Gabriel Almond
and
Sidney Verba
and exemplified by authors like
Samuel P. Huntington
, could benefit from aligning more closely with the study of culture in anthropology.
[38]
In turn, methodologies that are developed within political science may influence how researchers in other fields, like public health, conceive of and approach political processes and policies.
[39]
Education
[
edit
]
Political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, can be described "as a discipline which lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the
sciences
and the
humanities
."
[40]
Thus, in most American colleges, especially
liberal arts colleges
it would be located within the
school or college of arts and sciences
, if no separate college of arts and sciences exists or if the college or university prefers that it be in a separate constituent college or academic department, then political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of humanities or
liberal arts
.
[41]
At some universities, especially
research universities
and in particular those that have a strong cooperation between research, undergraduate, and graduate faculty with a stronger more applied emphasis in public administration, political science would be taught by the university's
public policy school
.
Most United States
colleges and universities
offer BA programs in political science. MA or MAT and PhD or EdD programs are common at larger universities. The term
political science
is more popular in post-1960s
North America
than elsewhere while universities predating the 1960s or those historically influenced by them would call the field of study
government
;
[42]
other institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of
political studies
or
politics
in general
.
While
political science
implies the use of the
scientific method
,
political studies
implies a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content. Separate, specialized or, in some cases, professional degree programs in
international relations
,
public policy
, and
public administration
are common at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, although most but not all undergraduate level education in these sub-fields of political science is generally found in
academic concentrations
within a political science
academic major
. Master's-level programs in
public administration
are
professional degrees
covering public policy along with other applied subjects; they are often seen as more linked to politics than any other discipline, which may be reflected by being housed in that department.
[43]
The main national honor society for college and university students of government and politics in the United States is
Pi Sigma Alpha
, while
Pi Alpha Alpha
is a national honor society specifically designated for
public administration
.
Writing
[
edit
]
The most common piece of academic writing in generalist political sciences is the research paper, which investigates an original
research question
.
[44]
[45]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- The Evolution of Political Science
(November 2006). APSR Centennial Volume of
American Political Science Review
.
Apsanet
. 4 February 2009.
- Alter, Karen J., et al. "Gender and status in American political science: Who determines whether a scholar is noteworthy?."
Perspectives on Politics
18.4 (2020): 1048?1067.
online
- Atchison, Amy L, ed.
Political Science Is for Everybody : An Introduction to Political Science
. University of Toronto Press, 2021.
- Badie, Bertrand, et al.
International Encyclopedia of Political Science
. SAGE, 2011.
- Berlin, Mark Stephen, and Anum Pasha Syed. "The Middle East and North Africa in Political Science Scholarship: Analyzing Publication Patterns in Leading Journals, 1990?2019".
International Studies Review
24.3 (2022): viac027.
- Blatt, Jessica.
Race and the Making of American Political Science
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018.
- Breuning, Marijke, Joseph Bredehoft, and Eugene Walton. "Promise and performance: an evaluation of journals in International Relations."
International Studies Perspectives
6.4 (2005): 447?461.
online
[
permanent dead link
]
- Frickel, Scott. "Political scientists".
Sociological Forum
33#1 (2018).
- Garand, James C., and Micheal W. Giles. "Journals in the discipline: a report on a new survey of American political scientists".
PS: Political Science & Politics
36.2 (2003): 293?308.
available from the authors
- Gerardo L. Munck and Richard Snyder, eds.
Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics.
(Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007)
- Goodin, R.E.; Klingemann, Hans-Dieter.
A New Handbook of Political Science
. (Oxford University Press, 1996).
ISBN
0198294719
.
- Goodin, Robert E, ed.
The Oxford Handbook of Political Science
. Oxford University Press, 2011.
- Hochschild, Jennifer L. "Race and Class in Political Science"
Michigan Journal of Race and Law
, 2005 11(1): 99?114.
- Hunger, Sophia, and Fred Paxton. "What's in a buzzword? A systematic review of the state of populism research in political science".
Political Science Research and Methods
(2021): 1?17.
online
- Katznelson, Ira, et al.
Political Science: The State of the Discipline
. W.W. Norton, 2002.
- Kellstedt, Paul M, and Guy D Whitten.
The Fundamentals of Political Science Research
Third ed., Cambridge University Press, 2018.
- Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, ed.
The State of Political Science in Western Europe
(Opladen: Barbara Budrich Publisher 2007).
ISBN
978-3866490451
.
- Kostova, Dobrinka, et al. "Determinants and Diversity of Internationalisation in Political Science: The Role of National Policy Incentives".
European Political Science
(2022): 1?14.
online
- Lowndes, Vivien, et al., editors.
Theory and Methods in Political Science.
Fourth ed., Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
- Noel, Hans (2010-10-14 | DOI
Ten Things Political Scientists Know that You Don't
)
"Ten Things Political Scientists Know that You Don't"
The Forum
: Vol. 8: Iss. 3, Article 12.
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JSTOR
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[1]
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