Person who suffers persecution
A
martyr
(
Greek
:
μ?ρτυ?
,
martys
, 'witness'
stem
μαρτυρ-
,
martyr-
) is someone who suffers
persecution
and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In colloquial usage, the term can also refer to any person who suffers a significant consequence in protest or support of a cause.
In the martyrdom narrative of the remembering community, this refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of an individual by an oppressor. Accordingly, the status of the 'martyr' can be considered a
posthumous title
as a reward for those who are considered worthy of the concept of martyrdom by the living, regardless of any attempts by the deceased to control how they will be remembered in advance.
[1]
Insofar, the martyr is a relational figure of a society's boundary work that is produced by
collective memory
.
[2]
Originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs, the term has come to be used in connection with people killed for a political cause.
Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership and heroism in the face of difficult circumstances. Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had notable effects in secular life, including such figures as
Socrates
, among other political and cultural examples.
Meaning
[
edit
]
In its original meaning, the word martyr, meaning
witness
, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the
New Testament
of the
Bible
.
[3]
The process of bearing witness was not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g.,
Josephus
) and from the New Testament that witnesses often died for their testimonies.
During the
early Christian
centuries, the term acquired the extended meaning of believers who are called to witness for their religious belief, and on account of this witness, endure suffering or death. The term, in this later sense, entered the
English language
as a
loanword
. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called
martyrdom
.
The early Christians who first began to use the term
martyr
in its new sense saw
Jesus
as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his
crucifixion
.
[4]
[5]
[6]
The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the
archetypal
martyr.
[7]
The word
martyr
is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the following table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms.
Common features of stereotypical martyrdoms
[8]
1.
|
A hero
|
A person of some renown who is devoted to a cause believed to be admirable.
|
2.
|
Opposition
|
People who oppose that cause.
|
3.
|
Foreseeable risk
|
The hero foresees action by opponents to harm him or her, because of his or her commitment to the cause.
|
4.
|
Courage and commitment
|
The hero continues, despite knowing the risk, out of commitment to the cause.
|
5.
|
Death
|
The opponents kill the hero because of his or her commitment to the cause.
|
6.
|
Audience response
|
The hero's death is commemorated. People may label the hero explicitly as a martyr. Other people may in turn be inspired to pursue the same cause.
|
Martyrdom in the Middle East
[
edit
]
In contemporary Middle Eastern cultures, the term for 'martyr’ (Arabic
shahid
) has more uses than the English word ‘martyr’.
[9]
While the term can be narrowly used for a person who is killed because of their religion, it is more generally used to mean a person who died a violent death. Thus it can arguably mean a general ‘victim’.
[10]
A person is a martyr if they were killed because of their identity, because of natural disasters like earthquakes,
[11]
or while performing relief or health care work. For example,
?brahim Bilgen
was killed by Israel in the 2010
Gaza flotilla raid
. Because he died as a humantiarian activist, he is called a martyr by
Al-Jazeera
.
[12]
Martyrdom is also tied with nationalism, because a martyr can be a person who died in the context of national struggle.
[13]
For example, in Beirut,
Martyrs' Square
is a public square that's dedicated to Lebanese nationalists who were executed by the Ottomans.
In Palestine, the word ‘martyr’ is traditionally used to mean a person killed by Israeli forces, regardless of religion.
[14]
[15]
For example,
Shireen Abu Akleh
was a Palestinian Christian journalist who was killed by Israeli forces, and Arabic media calls her a ‘martyr’.
[16]
This reflects a communal belief that every Palestinian death is part of a resistance against Israeli occupation.
[17]
Children are likewise called martyrs, such as the late children of journalist
Wael Al-Dahdouh
who were killed in an Israeli airstrike.
[18]
The label of martyrdom is used as a form of memoralizing the dead within some narrative, such as how the victims of the
2020 Beirut explosion
were called ‘martyrs of corruption’ as a form of protest against the government.
[19]
The wide usage of ‘martyr’ is not restricted to Arabic. Armenian culture likewise uses the term for the victims of the
Armenian genocide
, who are called
Holy Martyrs
.
[20]
April 24 is
Armenian Genocide Memorial Day
, and also called "Armenian Martyrs Day".
[21]
Religious meanings
[
edit
]
Eastern religions
[
edit
]
Chinese culture
[
edit
]
Martyrdom was extensively promoted by the
Tongmenghui
and the
Kuomintang
party in modern China. Revolutionaries who died fighting against the Qing dynasty in the
Xinhai Revolution
and throughout the
Republic of China
period, furthering the cause of the revolution, were recognized as martyrs.
[
citation needed
]
Hinduism
[
edit
]
Despite the promotion of
ahimsa
(non-violence) within
Sanatana Dharma
, and there being no concept of martyrdom,
[22]
there is the belief of righteous duty (
dharma
), where violence is used as a last resort to resolution after all other means have failed. Examples of this are found in the
Mahabharata
. Upon completion of their exile, the Pandavas were refused the return of their portion of the kingdom by their cousin Duruyodhana; and following which all means of peace talks by
Krishna
,
Vidura
and
Sanjaya
failed. During the great war which commenced, even
Arjuna
was brought down with doubts, e.g., attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs
Arjuna
how to carry out his duty as a righteous
warrior
and fight.
Sikhism
[
edit
]
Martyrdom (called
shahadat
in Punjabi) is a fundamental concept in
Sikhism
and represents an important institution of the faith. Sikhs believe in
Ibaadat se Shahadat
(from love to martyrdom). Some famous Sikh martyrs include:
[23]
- Guru Arjan
, the fifth leader of Sikhism. Guru ji was brutally tortured for almost 5 days before he attained shaheedi, or martyrdom.
- Guru Tegh Bahadur
, the ninth guru of Sikhism, martyred on 11 November 1675. He is also known as
Dharam Di Chadar
(i.e. "the shield of Religion"), suggesting that to save Hinduism, the guru gave his life.
- Bhai Dayala
is one of the Sikhs who was martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 due to his refusal to accept Islam.
- Bhai Mati Das
is considered by some one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save Hindu Brahmins.
- Bhai Sati Das
is also considered by some one of the greatest martyrs in Sikh history, martyred along with Guru Teg Bahadur at Chandni Chowk at Delhi in November 1675 to save kashmiri pandits.
- Sahibzada Ajit Singh
,
Sahibzada Jujhar Singh
,
Sahibzada Zorawar Singh
and
Sahibzada Fateh Singh
? the four sons of Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Sikh guru.
- Bhai Mani Singh
, who came from a family of over 20 different martyrs
Abrahamic religions
[
edit
]
Judaism
[
edit
]
Martyrdom in
Judaism
is one of the main examples of
Kiddush Hashem
, meaning "sanctification of God's name" through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the more significant contributions of
Hellenistic Judaism
to
Western Civilization
.
1 Maccabees
and
2 Maccabees
recount numerous martyrdoms suffered by
Jews
resisting
Hellenizing
(adoption of Greek ideas or customs of a
Hellenistic civilization
) by their
Seleucid
overlords, being executed for such crimes as
observing the Sabbath
,
circumcising their boys
or
refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to foreign gods
. However, the notion of martyrdom in the Jewish and Christian traditions differ considerably.
[24]
Christianity
[
edit
]
In
Christianity
, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek term
martys
in the
New Testament
, is one who brings a testimony, usually written or verbal. In particular, the testimony is that of the Christian
Gospel
, or more generally, the
Word of God
. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not
death
follows.
[25]
The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention. Analyses of the
Passion narratives in the Gospels
have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style.
[26]
[27]
[28]
Several scholars have also concluded that
Paul the Apostle
understood Jesus' death as a martyrdom.
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
In light of such conclusions, some have argued that the
early Christians
of the first three centuries would have interpreted the
crucifixion of Jesus
as a martyrdom.
[7]
[35]
In the context of
church history
, from the time of the
persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire
under the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
, it developed that a martyr was one who was killed for maintaining a
religious belief
,
knowing
that this will almost certainly result in imminent death (though without intentionally seeking death). This definition of
martyr
is not specifically restricted to the Christian faith. Christianity recognizes certain Old Testament Jewish figures, like
Abel
and the
Maccabees
, as holy, and the New Testament mentions the imprisonment and beheading of
John the Baptist
, Jesus's possible cousin and his prophet and forerunner. The first Christian witness, after the establishment of the Christian faith at
Pentecost
, to be killed for his testimony was
Saint Stephen
(whose name means "crown"), and those who suffer martyrdom are said to have been "crowned". From the time of the Roman Emperor
Constantine
, Christianity was decriminalized, and then, under
Theodosius I
, became the
state religion
, which greatly diminished persecution (although not for non-Nicene Christians). As some wondered how then they could most closely follow Christ there was a development of
desert spirituality
characterized by a
eremitic lifestyle
,
renunciation
,
self-mortification
, and separation from the world, practiced by several
desert monks
and
Christian ascetics
in
late antiquity
(such as
Paul the Hermit
and
Anthony the Great
). This was a kind of
white martyrdom
, dying to oneself every day, as opposed to a
red martyrdom
, the giving of one's life in a violent death.
[36]
In the history of Christianity,
death due to sectarian persecutions by other Christians
has been regarded as martyrdom as well. There were martyrs recognized on both sides of the
schism between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England
after 1534. Two hundred and eighty-eight Christians were martyred for their faith by
public burning
between 1553 and 1558 by the Roman Catholic
Queen Mary I
in England leading to the reversion to the
Church of England
under
Queen Elizabeth I
in 1559. "From hundreds to thousands" of
Waldensians
were martyred in the
Massacre of Merindol
in 1545. Three-hundred Roman Catholics were said to have been martyred by the Church authorities in England in the 16th and 17th centuries.
[37]
Even more modern day accounts of martyrdom for Christ exist, depicted in books such as
Jesus Freaks
, though the numbers are disputed. The claim that 100,000 Christians are killed for their faith annually is greatly exaggerated according to the
BBC
, with many of those deaths due to war,
[38]
but the fact of ongoing Christian martyrdoms remains undisputed.
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
Islam
[
edit
]
Shahid
is an
Arabic
term in
Islam
meaning "witness", and is also used to denote a martyr; a female martyr is named
shahidka
. The term
Shahid
occurs frequently in the
Quran
in the generic sense "witness", but only once in the sense "martyr, one who dies for his faith"; this latter sense acquires wider use in the
?ad?th
literature
. Islam views a martyr as a man or woman who dies while conducting
jihad
, whether on or off the battlefield (see
greater jihad
and
lesser jihad
).
[43]
The concept of martyrdom in Islam became prominent during the
Islamic Revolution in Iran
(1979) and the subsequent
Iran?Iraq War
(1980?1988), so that the cult of the martyr had a lasting impact on the course of revolution and war.
[44]
Since the early 2000s, it has been primarily associated with
Islamic extremism
and
jihadism
.
[45]
Baha?i Faith
[
edit
]
In the
Baha?i Faith
, martyrs are those who sacrifice their lives serving humanity in the name of God.
[46]
However,
Baha'u'llah
, the founder of the Baha?i Faith, discouraged the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life. Instead, he explained that martyrdom is devoting oneself to service to humanity.
[46]
Notable religious people entitled as martyr
[
edit
]
- 399 BCE ?
Socrates
, a Greek philosopher who chose to die rather than renounce his ideals.
- c.
34 CE
?
Saint Stephen
, considered to be the first Christian martyr.
- c.
2nd century CE
?
Ten Martyrs
of
Judaism
.
- c.
288
?
Saint Sebastian
, the subject of many works of art.
- c.
304
?
Saint Agnes of Rome
, beheaded for refusing to forsake her devotion to Christ, for Roman paganism.
- c.
680
?
Husayn ibn Ali
, grandson of
Muhammed
beheaded for opposing the
Umayyad Caliphate
.
- c.
692
?
Abdullah ibn Zubair
, martyred for opposing the Umayyad Caliphate.
[47]
- 1415 ?
Jan Hus
, Christian reformer burned at the stake for
heresy
.
- 1535 ?
Thomas More
, beheaded for refusing to acknowledge
Henry VIII
as
Supreme Head of the Church of England
.
- 1606 ?
Guru Arjan Dev
, the fifth leader of
Sikhism
.
- 1675 ?
Guru Tegh Bahadur
, the ninth
guru
of Sikhism, referred to as "Hind di Chadar" or "Shield of India" martyred in defense of religious freedom of Hindus.
- 1844 ?
Joseph Smith Jr.
, founder of
Mormonism
, killed by a mob in
Carthage Jail
, Illinois.
- 1941 ?
Maximilian Kolbe
, a Roman Catholic priest who was martyred in the
Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz
, August 1941.
Political meanings
[
edit
]
In politics, a martyr is someone who suffers persecution and/or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, and/or refusing to advocate a political belief or cause.
Sovereignty
[
edit
]
The
Manchester Martyrs
were three Irishmen executed after being condemned for association with the killing of a policeman in
Manchester
, England in 1867. The day after the executions,
Frederick Engels
wrote to
Karl Marx
: "Yesterday morning the Tories, by the hand of Mr Calcraft, accomplished the final act of separation between England and Ireland. The only thing that the
Fenians
still lacked were martyrs. ... To my knowledge, the only time that anybody has been executed for a similar matter in a civilised country was the case of
John Brown
at Harpers Ferry. The Fenians could not have wished for a better precedent."
[48]
Ten
Irish Republican Army
members died during a
1981 hunger strike
, including
Bobby Sands
.
The
Belfiore martyrs
(in
Italian
,
Martiri di Belfiore
) were a group of
Italian
pro-independence fighters condemned to death by hanging in 1853 during the Italian
Risorgimento
. They included
Tito Speri
and the priest
Enrico Tazzoli
and are named after the site where the sentence was carried out, in the valley of Belfiore at the south entrance to
Mantua
.
Unionism
[
edit
]
The
Tolpuddle Martyrs
were a group of 19th century agricultural labourers in
Dorset
, England, who were arrested for and convicted of swearing a secret oath as members of the
Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers.
The rules of the society showed it was clearly structured as a
friendly society
, that is, a mutual association for the purposes of insurance, pensions, savings or cooperative banking; and it operated as a trade-specific
benefit society
. But at the time, friendly societies had strong elements of what are now considered to be the principal role of
trade unions
, and wages were at issue. The Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced not to death but to
transportation
to
Australia
, a harsh form of exile.
[49]
Communism
[
edit
]
In the
People's Republic of China
, people who died in the cause of the
Communist Party
?most particularly the many victims of the 1927
Shanghai massacre
but also including devoted humanitarians during the
Chinese Civil War
such as the Canadian physician
Tillson Harrison
?are honored and commemorated as martyrs. The red scarf worn by the 100+ million
Young Pioneers
honors their spilt blood.
Jiang Zhuyun
and
Liu Hulan
are notable female martyrs who have been commemorated in various media. Notable monuments include the
Monument to the People's Heroes
at the confluence of
Suzhou Creek
and the
Huangpu River
in central
Shanghai
and the
Longhua Martyrs' Memorial
.
Many
communist
activists have died as martyrs in India, due to their allegiance to various communist parties, such as the
CPI(M)
and the
CPI
. Most of them hail from mainly
leftist
states such as
Kerala
, and
Tripura
. In Kerala, many are killed in protests by the police, and some are assassinated by activists in other political parties, such as the
INC
and the
RSS
. The district of
Kannur
has reported to have had the most political murders. Here, the RSS are known to have used brutal violence to eliminate CPI(M) workers.
Civil rights movement
[
edit
]
In the
United States
, the assassinations of
Malcolm X
in 1965 and
Martin Luther King Jr.
in 1968 have been linked to their leadership in movements to improve the rights and quality of life of black citizens,
black nationalism
and the
civil rights movement
respectively.
Notable political people entitled as martyr
[
edit
]
A political martyr is someone who suffers persecution or death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a political belief or cause.
- 1793 ?
Jean-Paul Marat
, a French Jacobin assassinated by Charlotte Corday.
- 1835 ? King
Hintsa kaKhawuta
, a Xhosa monarch who was shot and killed while attempting to escape captivity during Sixth Frontier War, also known as the Hintsa War.
- 1859 ?
John Brown
, a militant abolitionist who was executed after his raid on Harper's Ferry. Many abolitionists of the time extolled him as a martyr.
- 1865 ?
Abraham Lincoln
, 16th U.S. President. Assassinated by a Confederate sympathizer
John Wilkes Booth
after the end of the American Civil War.
- 1881 ?
James A. Garfield
, 20th U.S. President. Shot and killed by an office seeker. Considered one of the people who died for corruption to end.
- 1940 ?
Leon Trotsky
murdered on the Orders of Soviet General Secretary
Joseph Stalin
by NKVD agent
Ramon Mercader
in Mexico City, Trotsky is considered a Marytr by Trotskyist Internationals
- 1967 ?
Che Guevara
, an influential Marxist?Leninist revolutionary in
Cuba
,
the Congo
, and
Bolivia
who was executed in Bolivia by counter-revolutionary forces. He has since become a figure of political protests and revolutions worldwide.
- 2024 ?
Alexei Navalny
a Russian opposition leader, lawyer, anti-corruption activist, and political prisoner died while serving a 19-year prison sentence in the corrective colony
FKU IK-3
Revolutionary martyr
[
edit
]
The term "revolutionary martyr" usually relates to those dying in
revolutionary
struggle.
[50]
[51]
During the 20th century, the concept was developed in particular in the culture and propaganda of communist or socialist revolutions, although it was and is also used in relation to nationalist revolutions.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Golz, Olmo
"Martyrdom and the Struggle for Power. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Martyrdom in the Modern Middle East."
, Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 2?13, 5.
- ^
Golz, Olmo
"The Imaginary Field of the Heroic: On the Contention between Heroes, Martyrs, Victims and Villains in Collective Memory."
Archived
2020-01-03 at the
Wayback Machine
In helden.heroes.heros, Special Issue 5: Analyzing Processes of Heroization. Theories, Methods, Histories. Ed. by N Falkenhayner, S Meurer and T Schlechtriemen (2019): 27?38, 27.
- ^
See e.g. Alison A. Trites,
The New Testament Concept of Witness
,
ISBN
978-0-521-60934-0
.
- ^
Frances M. Young,
The Use of Sacrificial Ideas in Greek Christian Writers from the New Testament to John Chrysostom
(Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2004), pp. 107.
- ^
Eusebius
wrote of the early Christians: "They were so eager to imitate Christ ... they gladly yielded the title of martyr to Christ, the true Martyr and Firstborn from the dead." Eusebius,
Church History
5.1.2.
- ^
Scholars believe that
Revelation
was written during the period when the word for
witness
was gaining its meaning of
martyr
. Revelation describes several Christian reh with the term
martyr
(Rev 17:6, 12:11, 2:10?13), and describes Jesus in the same way ("Jesus Christ, the faithful witness/martyr" in Rev 1:5, and see also Rev 3:14).
- ^
a
b
A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk,
Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation
(New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 217?229.
- ^
From A. J. Wallace and R. D. Rusk,
Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation
(New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011), pp. 218.
- ^
Fierke (2012). "Martyrdom in the contemporary Middle East and north Africa".
Political Self-Sacrifice: Agency, Body and Emotion in International Relations
: 198.
doi
:
10.1017/CBO9781139248853.011
.
ISBN
9781139248853
.
- ^
Whitaker, Brian (October 12, 2000).
"Martyrs, never victims"
.
The Guardian
.
- ^
Akasoy, Anna (2006).
"Islamic Attitudes to Disasters in the Middle Ages: A Comparison of Earthquakes and Plagues"
.
The Medieval History Journal
.
10
(1?2): 398.
doi
:
10.1177/097194580701000214
.
- ^
Keddie, Patrick (21 Jul 2016).
"Remembering the Mavi Marmara victims"
. Al Jazeera.
- ^
Buckner, Elizabeth and
Khatib, Lina
(2014).
"The Martyrs' Revolutions: The Role of Martyrs in the Arab Spring"
.
British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
.
41
(4): 370.
doi
:
10.1080/13530194.2014.918802
.
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
"The Culture of Palestinian Shaheeds"
(PDF)
.
The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
. January 4, 2018
. Retrieved
9 December
2023
.
- ^
Fierke (2012). "Martyrdom in the contemporary Middle East and north Africa".
Political Self-Sacrifice: Agency, Body and Emotion in International Relations
: 216.
doi
:
10.1017/CBO9781139248853.011
.
ISBN
9781139248853
.
- ^
Alamuddin, Baria (May 16, 2022).
"Shireen Abu Akleh: A martyr to the truth of Israeli inhumanity"
. Arab News.
- ^
Raja Abdulrahim and Hiba Yazbek (December 31, 2022).
"For Palestinians, a Rush to Claim 'Martyrs' Killed by Israel"
.
The New York Times
.
- ^
Abu Mazen, Saddam (October 28, 2023).
"???? ?????? ???: ????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????????? [Arab writers and writers: Wael Al-Dahdouh's toughness is a model of Palestinian courage]"
. Al Jazeera.
- ^
ICSR Team (10 May 2023).
"Martyrdom in Lebanon: An Evolution of Memory-Making"
.
International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation
.
- ^
"Holy Martyrs of the Armenian Genocide"
.
The Armenian Church, Eastern Diocese of America
. Retrieved
28 October
2023
.
- ^
The Genocide Education Project.
"President Biden formally recognizes the Armenian Genocide"
.
- ^
Stephen Knapp (2006) The Power of the Dharma: An Introduction to Hinduism and Vedic Culture
[1]
- ^
Sandeep Singh Bajwa (2000-02-11).
"Biographies of Great Sikh Martyrs"
. Sikh-history.com. Archived from
the original
on 2019-04-03
. Retrieved
2014-08-22
.
- ^
See Philippe Bobichon, ≪ Martyre talmudique et martyre chretien ≫,
Kentron : Revue du Monde Antique et de Psychologie Historique
11, 2 (1995) and 12, 1 (1996), pp. 109?129
- ^
See Davis, R.
"Martyr, or Witness?"
Archived
2011-05-11 at the
Wayback Machine
, New Matthew Bible Project
- ^
J. W. van Henten, "Jewish Martyrdom and Jesus' Death" in Jorg Frey & Jens Schroter (eds.),
Deutungen des Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament
(Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005) pp. 157?168.
- ^
Donald W. Riddle, "The Martyr Motif in the Gospel According to Mark." The Journal of Religion, IV.4 (1924), pp. 397?410.
- ^
M. E. Vines, M. E. Vines, "The 'Trial Scene' Chronotype in Mark and the Jewish Novel", in G. van Oyen and T. Shepherd (eds.),
The Trial and Death of Jesus: Essays on the Passion Narrative in Mark
(Leuven: Peeters, 2006), pp. 189?203.
- ^
Stephen Finlan,
The Background and Content of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors
(Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2004), pp. 193?210
- ^
Sam K. Williams,
Death as Saving Event: The Background and Origin of a Concept
(Missoula, MT: Scholars Press for Harvard Theological Review, 1975), pp. 38?41.
- ^
David Seeley,
The Noble Death
(Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1990), pp. 83?112.
- ^
Stanley Stowers,
A Rereading of Romans: Justice, Jews, and Gentiles
(Ann Arbor: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 212ff.
- ^
Jarvis J. Williams,
Maccabean Martyr Traditions in Paul's Theology of Atonement
(Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2010)
- ^
S. A. Cummins,
Paul and the Crucified Christ in Antioch
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
- ^
Stephen J. Patterson,
Beyond the Passion: Rethinking the Death and Life of Jesus
(Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 2004).
- ^
Arena
,
Saints
, directed by Paul Tickell, 2006
- ^
"Forty Martyrs of England and Wales | Description, History, Canonization, & Facts | Britannica"
.
www.britannica.com
. Retrieved
2022-09-13
.
- ^
Alexander, Ruth (2013-11-12).
"Are there really 100,000 new Christian martyrs every year?"
.
BBC News
. Retrieved
2014-08-22
.
- ^
"IS 'beheads Christian hostages' in Nigeria"
.
BBC News
. 2019-12-27
. Retrieved
2020-02-17
.
- ^
Chiaramonte, Perry (2016-04-21).
"Martyr killed by bulldozer becomes symbol of growing persecution of Christians in China"
.
Fox News
. Retrieved
2020-02-17
.
- ^
"Christian evangelist murdered in southeast Turkey"
.
The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com
. 22 November 2019
. Retrieved
2020-02-17
.
- ^
"Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam"
.
ABC News
. Retrieved
2020-02-17
.
- ^
A. Ezzati (1986).
The Concept Of Martyrdom In Islam
.
Tehran University
.
- ^
Golz,
"Martyrdom and Masculinity in Warring Iran. The Karbala Paradigm, the Heroic, and the Personal Dimensions of War."
, Behemoth 12, no. 1 (2019): 35?51, 35.
- ^
Karimi, Nima (December 2023).
"The Punishment of the Grave: A Neglected Motivation for Jihad and Martyrdom"
(PDF)
.
Perspectives on Terrorism
.
17
(4).
International Centre for Counter-Terrorism
: 127?151.
ISSN
2334-3745
.
JSTOR
27274061
.
LCCN
2014200073
.
OCLC
1061231390
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2 May 2024
. Retrieved
3 May
2024
.
- ^
a
b
Winters, Jonah (1997-09-19). "Conclusion".
Dying for God: Martyrdom in the Shi'i and Babi Religions
. M.A. Thesis. Archived from
the original
on 2020-02-18
. Retrieved
2007-01-23
.
- ^
"Biography of Hazrat Abdullah bin az-Zubayr (??? ???? ????? ???)"
.
Aal-e-Qutub
. 2018-06-03
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
Marx and Engels in Ireland (1971) Progress Publishers, Moscow.
Letter of November 24 1867 Engels to Marx
- ^
"The Tolpuddle Martyrs"
. Historic-uk.com
. Retrieved
2014-08-22
.
- ^
The French Revolution
Page 95 Linda Frey, Marsha Frey ? 2004 "He was immortalized by the painter David in the famous painting of the death scene that became the icon of the revolution and an emblem of revolutionary propaganda. The revolutionary martyr was commemorated not only in painting and in ..."
- ^
Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican ... p. 250 John Mason Hart ? 1987 "They popularized Ricardo Flores Magon as a revolutionary martyr who was harassed by the American and Mexican ..."
- ^
Vietnam At War Mark Philip Bradley ? 2009 "As the concept of 'sacrifice' (hi sinh) came to embody the state's narrative of sacred war (chien tranh than thanh), the ultimate sacrifice was considered to be death in battle as a 'revolutionary martyr' (liet si)."
- ^
Staff, The New Arab (2021-10-04).
"Algeria says 5.6 million died under French colonialism"
.
www.newarab.com/
. Retrieved
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.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- "Martyrs"
,
Catholic Encyclopedia
- Foster, Claude R. Jr. (1995).
Paul Schneider, the Buchenwald apostle: a Christian martyr in Nazi Germany: A Sourcebook on the German Church Struggle
. Westchester, PA: SSI Bookstore, West Chester University.
ISBN
978-1-887732-01-7
- History.com Editors. "Abolitionist John Brown Is Hanged". History.com, 4 Mar. 2010, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/john-brown-hanged.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Belanger, Jocelyn J., et al. "The Psychology of Martyrdom: Making the Ultimate Sacrifice in the Name of a Cause." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 107.3 (2014): 494?515. Print.
- Kateb, George. "Morality and Self-Sacrifice, Martyrdom and Self-Denial." Social Research 75.2 (2008): 353?394. Print.
- Olivola, Christopher Y. and Eldar Shafir. "The Martyrdom Effect: When Pain and Effort Increase Prosocial Contributions." Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 26, no. 1 (2013): 91?105.
- PBS. "Plato and the Legacy of Socrates." PBS.
https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/41a.html
(accessed October 21, 2014).
- Reeve, C. D. C..
A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues
. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. Co., 2012.
[
ISBN missing
]
External links
[
edit
]
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