Syriac Eastern Catholic Church
Antiochene Syriac Maronite Church
|
---|
|
Classification
| Eastern Catholic
|
---|
Orientation
| Syriac
|
---|
Scripture
| Peshitta
[1]
[2]
|
---|
Theology
| Catholic theology
|
---|
Polity
| Episcopal
|
---|
Governance
| Holy Synod of the Maronite Church
[
ar
]
[3]
|
---|
Pope
| Francis
|
---|
Patriarch
[4]
[5]
| Bechara Boutros al-Rahi
|
---|
Region
| Lebanon
(approximately one third),
Syria
,
Israel
,
Cyprus
,
Jordan
,
Palestine
and
diaspora
|
---|
Language
| Arabic
[6]
[7]
Aramaic
(
Syriac
)
|
---|
Liturgy
| West Syriac Rite
|
---|
Headquarters
| Bkerke
,
Lebanon
|
---|
Founder
| Maron
;
John Maron
|
---|
Origin
| 410 AD
Monastery of Saint Maron
,
Phoenicia
,
Roman Empire
|
---|
Separated from
| The
Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch
in 685 AD
|
---|
Members
| 3,498,707
[8]
|
---|
Official website
| bkerki
.org
|
---|
Logo
| |
---|
The
Maronite Church
(
Arabic
:
?????? ??????????
;
Syriac
:
???? ??????? ???????
) is an
Eastern Catholic
sui iuris
particular church
in
full communion
with the
pope
and the worldwide
Catholic Church
, with self-governance under the
Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches
.
[9]
The head of the Maronite Church is
Patriarch
Bechara Boutros al-Rahi
, who was elected in March 2011 following the resignation of Patriarch
Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir
. The seat of the Maronite Patriarchate is in
Bkerke
, northeast of
Beirut
,
Lebanon
. Officially known as the
Antiochene Syriac Maronite Church
(
Arabic
:
??????? ????????? ????????? ?????????
;
Syriac
:
?????? ?????? ?????? ????????
), it is part of
Syriac Christianity
by
liturgy
and heritage.
[10]
The early development of the Maronite Church can be divided into three periods, from the 4th to the 7th centuries. A
congregation
movement, with
Saint Maron
from the
Taurus Mountains
as an inspirational leader and
patron saint
, marked the first period. The second began with the establishment of the
Monastery of Saint Maroun on the Orontes
, built after the
Council of Chalcedon
to defend the doctrines of the council.
[11]
This monastery was described as the "greatest monastery" in the region of
Syria Secunda
, with more than 300
hermitages
around it, according to ancient records.
[12]
After 518, the monastery
de facto
administered many parishes in
Syria Prima
,
Cole Syria
and
Phoenicia
. The third period was when
Sede Vacante
followed the
Islamic conquest of the region
and bishops of the Saint Maron Monastery elected
John Maron
as Patriarch circa 685 AD, according to Maronite tradition. The
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch
reestablished
their patriarchate
in 751 AD.
Other centers of historical importance include
Kfarhay
,
Yanouh
,
Mayfouq
, and the
Qadisha Valley
.
Although reduced in numbers today, the distinct but related
Maronite
ethno-religious group
remains a principal grouping in Lebanon
,
[14]
with smaller minorities of Maronites in
Syria
,
Cyprus
,
Israel
, and
Jordan
.
Emigration
since the 19th century means that about two-thirds of the Maronite Church's roughly 3.5 million members in 2017
[15]
were located outside "The Antiochian's Range", where they are part of the worldwide
Lebanese diaspora
.
Overview
[
edit
]
The six major traditions of the Catholic Church are
Alexandrian
,
Antiochene
,
Armenian
,
Chaldean
,
Constantinopolitan
(Byzantine), and
Latin
(Roman). The Maronite Church follows the Antiochene Tradition.
[16]
Any Catholic may attend any
Eastern Catholic liturgy
and fulfill his or her canonical obligations at an Eastern Catholic parish. Any Catholic may attend any Eastern Catholic parish or service and receive any sacrament from an Eastern Catholic priest since all belong to the Catholic Church.
[17]
Maronites who do not reside within a convenient distance to a local Maronite Church are permitted to attend other Catholic churches while retaining their Maronite membership.
[18]
The Maronite Patriarchal Assembly (2003?2004) identified five distinguishing marks of the Maronite Church:
- It is Antiochene.
- It is Chalcedonian, in that the Maronites were strong supporters of the
Council of Chalcedon
of 451.
- It is Patriarchal and Monastic.
- It is faithful to the See of Peter in Rome.
- It has strong ties to Lebanon.
[16]
History
[
edit
]
Maron
, a fourth-century
monk
and a contemporary and friend of
John Chrysostom
, left Antioch for the
Orontes River
in modern-day Syria to lead an
ascetic
life, following the traditions of
Anthony the Great
of the Desert and of
Pachomius
. Many of his followers also lived a monastic lifestyle. Maron is considered the founder of the spiritual and monastic movement that evolved into what is now the Maronite Church. Maronite Christianity has had a profound influence on what is now
Lebanon
, and to a lesser degree
Syria
,
Jordan
and
Palestine
. Saint Maron spent his life on a mountain in Syria, generally believed to be
"Kefar-Nabo"
on the mountain of
Ol-Yambos
in the
Taurus Mountains
, contemporary
Turkey
, becoming the cradle of the Maronite movement established in the
Monastery of Saint Maron
.
Following Maron's death in 410 AD, his disciples built Beth-Maron monastery at
Apamea
(present day
Qalaat al-Madiq
). This formed the nucleus of the Maronite Church. In 452, after the
Council of Chalcedon
, the monastery was expanded by the
Byzantine emperor
Marcian
.
[19]
The Maronite movement reached Lebanon when St. Maron's first disciple,
Abraham of Cyrrhus
, who was called the "Apostle of Lebanon", set out to convert the non-Christians by introducing them to St. Maron.
[20]
The
Maronites
subscribed to the beliefs of the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Monophysites
of Antioch slew 350 monks and burned the monastery in an act of
sectarian violence among Christians
. Later,
Justinian I
restored the community. Correspondence concerning the event brought the Maronites papal and orthodox recognition, indicated by a letter from
Pope Hormisdas
(514?523) dated 10 February 518.
[21]
Representatives from Beth-Maron participated in the Constantinople synods of
536
and
553
.
An outbreak of civil war during the reign of Emperor
Phocas
brought forth riots in the cities of Syria and Palestine and incursions by Persian King
Khosrow II
. In 609, the Patriarch of Antioch,
Anastasius II
, was killed either at the hands of some soldiers or locals.
[22]
This left the Maronites without a leader, which continued because of the final
Byzantine?Sassanid War of 602?628
.
In the aftermath of the war, the Emperor
Heraclius
propagated a new Christological doctrine in an attempt to unify the various Christian churches of the East, who were divided over accepting the
Council of Chalcedon
. This doctrine, called
Monothelitism
, held that Christ had two natures (one divine and one human) but only one will (not a divine will and also a human will), based on a phrasing of
Pope Honorius I
(see
Controversy over Honorius I
), and was meant as a compromise between supporters of Chalcedon, such as the Maronites, and opponents, such as the
Jacobites
.
Monothelitism
failed to settle the schism, however, and was declared a heresy at the
Sixth Ecumenical Council
in 680?681. The Council condemned both Honorius and Patriarch
Sergius I of Constantinople
but did not explicitly mention the Maronites.
[19]
Contemporary Greek and Arab sources suggest the Maronites rejected the
Third Council of Constantinople
and accepted monothelitism,
only moving away from it in the time of the
Crusades
in order to avoid being branded heretics by the crusaders. The Maronite Church, however, rejects the assertions that the Maronites were ever monothelites and broke communion with Rome;
[24]
and the question remains a matter of controversy.
Elias El-H?yek attributes much of the confusion to Eutyches of Alexandria, whose
Annals
El-H?yek claimed contain erroneous material regarding the early Maronite Church, which was then picked up by
William of Tyre
and others.
[19]
Robert W. Crawford concluded the same, pointing out that the heretic "Maro" mentioned in the
Annals
, which William of Tyre considers as the namesake of the Maronites, was a
Nestorian
from Edessa and could not have been
Maron
or
John Maron
.
[25]
However,
Donald Attwater
, 20th Century historian of Eastern Christianity, affirmed the view that Maronites broke communion with Rome over monothelitism, however briefly.
[26]
First Maronite Patriarch
[
edit
]
The Patriarch of Antioch
Anastasius II
died in 609, and Constantinople began to appoint a series of titular patriarchs, who resided in Constantinople. In 685, the Maronites elected Bishop John Maron of
Batroun
as Patriarch of Antioch and all the East.
[19]
In 687, as part of an agreements with
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
, Byzantine emperor
Justinian II
sent 12,000 Christian Maronites from Lebanon to Armenia,
[27]
in exchange for a substantial payment and half the revenues of Cyprus.
[19]
There they were conscripted as rowers and
marines
in the
Byzantine navy
.
[28]
Additional resettlement efforts allowed Justinian to reinforce naval forces depleted by earlier conflicts.
[29]
John Maron established himself in the remote
Qadisha Valley
in Lebanon. In 694, Justinian sent troops against the Maronites in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Patriarch.
[30]
John Maron died in 707 at the Monastery of St. Maron in Lebanon. Around 749 the Maronite community, in the Lebanon mountains, built the Mar-Mama church at
Ehden
. Meanwhile, caught between the Byzantines and the Arabs, the monastery at Beth-Maron struggled to survive.
[31]
Islamic rule
[
edit
]
After they came under Arab rule following the
Muslim conquest of Syria
(634?638), Maronite immigration to Lebanon, which had begun some time before, increased, intensifying under the Abbasid caliph
al-Ma'mun
(813?33).
[30]
To eliminate internal dissent, from 1289 to 1291 Egyptian Mamluk troops descended on Mount Lebanon, destroying forts and monasteries.
[32]
Crusades
[
edit
]
Following the Muslim conquest of Eastern Christendom outside
Anatolia
and Europe in the 7th century and after the establishment of secured lines of demarcation between Islamic
Caliphs
and Byzantine Emperors, little was heard from the Maronites for 400 years. Secure in their mountain strongholds, the Maronites were re-discovered in the mountains near
Tripoli, Lebanon
, by
Raymond of Toulouse
on his way to conquer Jerusalem in the
Great Crusade
of 1096?1099. Raymond later returned to
besiege Tripoli
(1102?1109) after the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, and relations between the Maronites and European Christianity were subsequently reestablished.
[33]
The Maronites assisted the crusaders and affirmed their affiliation with the
Holy See
of Rome in 1182.
[34]
To commemorate their communion, Maronite Patriarch Youseff Al Jirjisi received the crown and staff, marking his patriarchal authority, from
Pope Paschal II
in 1100 AD. In 1131, Maronite Patriarch Gregorios Al-Halati received letters from Pope
Innocent II
in which the Papacy recognized the authority of the
Patriarchate of Antioch
. Patriarch
Jeremias II Al-Amshitti
(1199?1230) became the first Maronite Patriarch to visit Rome when he attended the
Fourth Council of the Lateran
in 1215.
[34]
The Patriarchate of Antioch was also represented at the
Council of Ferrara-Florence
in 1438.
[35]
Peter Hans Kolvenbach
notes, "This contact with the Latin Church enriched the intellectual world of Europe in the Middle Ages. Maronites taught Oriental languages and literature at the universities of Italy and France."
[31]
Ottoman rule
[
edit
]
In the
Ottoman Empire
, indigenous concentrated religious communities dealt mainly with the provincial administration. Officially, Maronites had to pay the
jizya
tax as non-Muslims, but sometimes the monks and clergy were exempt because they were considered to be "poor".
[36]
Fakhr-al-Din II
(1572?1635) was a Druze prince and a leader of the Emirate of
Chouf District
in the governorate of Mount Lebanon. Maronite Ab? N?dir al-Kh?zin was one of his foremost supporters and served as Fakhr-al-Din's adjutant. Phares notes that "The emirs prospered from the intellectual skills and trading talents of the Maronites, while the Christians gained political protection, autonomy and a local ally against the ever-present threat of direct Ottoman rule."
[37]
In 1649, Patriarch Yuhanna al-Sufrari placed the Maronites under French protection, and the French opened a consulate in Beirut.
[38]
The Kh?zin sheikhs subsequently increased in power and influence. In 1662, with the mediation of
Jesuit
missionaries, Ab? Nawfal al-Kh?zin was named French consul, despite complaints by Marseille merchants that he was not from Marseille.
[36]
The Church prospered from the protection and influence of the Kh?zins, but at the expense of interference in church affairs, particularly ecclesiastical appointments, which the Kh?zins saw as an extension of their political influence.
[37]
Bachir Chehab II
was the first and last Maronite ruler of the Emirate of Mount Lebanon.
The relationship between the Druze and
Christians
has been characterized by
harmony
and peaceful
coexistence
,
[40]
with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including
1860 Mount Lebanon civil war
.
[41]
[42]
The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early Eighteenth Century, through a governing and social system known as the "
Maronite-Druze dualism
" in the
Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
.
[43]
French rule
[
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]
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March 2021
)
|
Independent Lebanon
[
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]
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.
(
March 2021
)
|
Synod of Mount Lebanon (1736)
[
edit
]
Maronite orientalist
Joseph Simon Assemani
presided as papal legate for
Pope Clement XII
. The synod drafted a Code of Canons for the Maronite Church and created the first regular diocesan structure.
[34]
The Council of Luwayza led to a more effective church structure and to gradual emancipation from the influence of Maronite families.
[44]
Latinization
[
edit
]
Due to closer ties with the Latin Church, the Maronite Church is among the most
Latinized
of the
Eastern Catholic Churches
.
Contacts between the Maronite monks and Rome were revived during the Crusades. The Maronites introduced to Eastern Churches Western devotional practices such as the
rosary
and the
Stations of the Cross
.
[31]
Late in the 16th century,
Pope Gregory XIII
sent Jesuits to the Lebanese monasteries to ensure that their practice conformed to decisions made at the
Council of Trent
.
[32]
The
Maronite College
in Rome was established by Gregory XIII in 1584.
[37]
The Maronite missal (
Qurbono
) was first printed between 1592 and 1594 in Rome, although with fewer anaphoras.
Patriarch
Stephan al-Duwayhi
(1670?1704), (later declared a "
Servant of God
"), was able to find a middle ground between reformers and conservatives, and re-vitalized Maronite liturgical tradition.
[35]
The Synod of Mount Lebanon sought to incorporate both traditions. It formalized many of the Latin practices that had developed, but also attempted to preserve ancient Maronite liturgical tradition. The Synod did not sanction the exclusive use of the Roman ritual in the administration of Baptism. However, in the Eastern tradition, the
oil of catechumens
is blessed by the priest during the
baptismal
rite. This blessing was now reserved to the
Chrism Mass
of Holy Thursday. A practice common among all the Eastern Churches is to administer Baptism and
First Communion
together. Unlike in other Eastern Catholic churches and similar to the Latin Church, Holy Communion is to be given only to those who have attained the age of reason; priests were forbidden to give Communion to infants.
[45]
In
Orientale lumen
, the Apostolic Letter to the Churches of the East, issued 2 May 1995,
Pope John Paul II
quotes
Orientalium Ecclesiarum
, the Second Vatican Council's Decree on the Eastern Catholic Churches:
It has been stressed several times that the full union of the Catholic Eastern Churches with the Church of Rome which has already been achieved must not imply a diminished awareness of their own authenticity and originality. Wherever this occurred, the Second Vatican Council has urged them to rediscover their full identity, because they have "the right and the duty to govern themselves according to their own unique disciplines. For these are guaranteed by ancient tradition and seem to be better suited to the customs of their faithful and to the good of their souls."
[46]
Cardinal Sfeir
's personal commitment accelerated liturgical reforms in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992 he published a new Maronite
Missal
.
[35]
This represents an attempt to return to the original form of the Antiochene Liturgy, removing the liturgical Latinization of past centuries. There are six Anaphoras.
Patriarch Sfeir stated that
Sacrosanctum concilium
and the Roman liturgical changes following Vatican II apply to the Maronite Church.
Sancrosanctum Concilium
says, "Among these principles and norms there are some which can and should be applied both to the Roman rite and also to all the other rites. The practical norms which follow, however, should be taken as applying only to the Roman rite, except for those which, in the very nature of things, affect other rites as well."
[47]
Organization
[
edit
]
Patriarchate of Antioch
[
edit
]
The head of the Maronite Church is the
Patriarch of Antioch and the Whole Levant
, who is elected by the Maronite bishops and resides in
Bkerke
, close to
Jounieh
, north of
Beirut
. He resides in the northern town of
Dimane
during the summer.
[16]
There are four other claimants to the Patriarchal succession of Antioch:
Clerical celibacy
is not strictly required for Maronite deacons and priests of parishes outside of North America; monks, however, must remain celibate, as well as bishops who are normally selected from the monasteries. Around 50% of the Maronite
diocesan priests
in the Middle East are
married
.
[48]
Due to a long-term understanding with their Latin counterparts in North America, Maronite priests in that area have traditionally remained celibate. However, in February 2014, Wissam Akiki was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop A. Elias Zaidan of the U.S. Maronite Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon at St. Raymond's Maronite Cathedral in St. Louis. Deacon Akiki is the first married man to be ordained to the Maronite priesthood in North America and will not be expected to remain continent.
[49]
Episcopates
[
edit
]
The Maronite church has twenty-six eparchies and patriarchal
vicariates
as follows:
[50]
Middle East
[
edit
]
- Worldwide Immediately subject to the Patriarch
Elsewhere
[
edit
]
- Exempt, i.e. immediately subject to the
Holy See
:
- Subject to the Synod in matters of liturgical and particular law, otherwise exempt, i.e. immediately subject to the
Holy See
and its
Dicastery for the Eastern Churches
:
- Suffragan Eparchies in the
ecclesiastical provinces
of Latin Metropolitan Archbishops; both in
South America
:
Titular sees
[
edit
]
- Four
Titular archbishoprics
(none Metropolitan):
Cyrrhus of the Maronites
,
Laodicea in Syria of the Maronites
,
Nazareth of the Maronites
,
Nisibis of the Maronites
- Nine
Titular bishoprics
:
Apamea in Syria of the Maronites
,
Arca in Armenia of the Maronites
,
Arca in Phoenicia of the Maronites
,
Callinicum of the Maronites
,
Epiphania in Syria of the Maronites
,
Hemesa of the Maronites
,
Ptolemais in Phœnicia of the Maronites
,
Sarepta of the Maronites
,
Tarsus of the Maronites
.
Religious institutes (orders)
[
edit
]
Population
[
edit
]
In the 12th century, about 40,000 Maronites resided in the area around Antioch and modern-day Lebanon.
[34]
By the 21st century, estimates suggest that the Maronite diaspora population may have grown to more than twice the estimated 2 million Maronites living in their historic homelands in Lebanon, Syria, and Israel.
[57]
According to the official site of the Maronite church, approximately 1,062,000
Maronites
live in
Lebanon
, where they constitute up to 22 -23 percent of the population. Syrian Maronites total 51,000, following the archdioceses of
Aleppo
and
Damascus
and the
Diocese
of
Latakia
.
[58]
A
Maronite community
of about 10,000 lives
in Cyprus
[58]
with approximately 1,000 speakers of
Cypriot Maronite Arabic
from Kormakitis.
[59]
[60]
A noticeable
Maronite community
exists in northern Israel (Galilee), numbering 7,504.
[58]
Diaspora
[
edit
]
Immigration of Maronite faithful from the Middle East to the United States began during the latter part of the nineteenth century. When the faithful were able to obtain a priest, communities were established as parishes under the jurisdiction of the local Latin bishops. In January 1966, Pope Paul VI established the Maronite Apostolic Exarchate for the Maronite faithful of the United States. In a decree of the Sacred Congregation for the Eastern Churches, Bishop Francis Mansour Zayek was appointed the first exarch. The see, in Detroit, Michigan, with a cathedral under the patronage of Saint Maron, was suffragan to the Archdiocese of Detroit. In 1971,
Pope Paul VI
elevated the Exarchate to the status of an Eparchy, with the name of Eparchy of Saint Maron of Detroit. In 1977, the see of the Eparchy of Saint Maron was transferred to Brooklyn, New York, with the cathedral under the patronage of Our Lady of Lebanon. The name of the Eparchy was modified to Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn.
[18]
In 1994, the Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon was established with the cathedral at Los Angeles, California, under the patronage of Our Lady of Lebanon.
[18]
John George Chedid
, auxiliary bishop of the Diocese of Saint Maron of Brooklyn, was ordained as the first Bishop of the Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles at the Our Lady of Lebanon Cathedral in Los Angeles, California, where he served until he reached the mandatory retirement age of 80. In December 2000,
Robert Joseph Shaheen
succeeded Chedid as eparch.
Eparchies operate in
Sao Paulo
in Brazil, as well as in Colombia, Mexico, France, Australia,
[61]
South Africa, Canada and Argentina.
[58]
Former Brazilian president
Michel Temer
, the first
Lebanese Brazilian
to have led the nation, was the son of two Maronite Catholic Lebanese immigrants.
[62]
[63]
Other
[
edit
]
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. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
September 2020
)
|
- The Maronite Church awards medals,
[64]
Great Crosses,
[65]
and the Golden Order of the Maronite General Council of the Maronite Church.
[66]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Assemani, Maronite Light from the East for the Church and the World
- ^
Studia Humana Volume 2:3 (2013), pp. 53?55
- ^
Synod of the Maronite Church Patriarchal Synod
- ^
Cardinal Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir, head of the Maronite Church who steered a difficult course between factions in the Middle East ? obituary
- ^
Maronite patriarch elevates St. Maron pastor to chorbishop during Detroit visit
- ^
Maronite liturgy draws from Eastern and Western traditions, Catholics and cultures
- ^
The Maronite Divine Liturgy, By Dr Margaret Ghosn, Our Lady of Lebanon parish Australia
- ^
"Archived copy"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 24 October 2018
. Retrieved
15 October
2019
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
Richard P. Mc Brien,
The Church: The Evolution of Catholicism
(New York: Harper One, 2008), 450. O'Brien notes: The Vatican II document,
Orientalium Ecclesiarum
, "acknowledged that the Eastern Catholic communities are true Churches and not just rites within the Catholic Church."
- ^
Book of Offering: According to the Rite of the Antiochene Syriac Maronite Church
. Bkerke, Lebanon: Maronite Patriarchate of Antioch and all the East. 2012.
- ^
History of the Maronites
, Maronite Heritage.com, 13 April 2016.
- ^
Beggiani, Seely.
"Aspects of Maronite History—Monastery of St. Maron"
. Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn. Archived from
the original
on 2 March 2001
. Retrieved
4 July
2017
.
- ^
Reyes, Adelaida (2014).
Music and Minorities from Around the World: Research, Documentation and Interdisciplinary Study
. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 45.
ISBN
9781443870948
.
The Maronites are an ethnoreligious group in the Levant.
- ^
"Eastern Catholic Churches Worldwide 2017"
(PDF)
.
Catholic Near East Welfare Association
. 2017
. Retrieved
25 October
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Maronite Church"
. Retrieved
16 June
2016
.
- ^
"About the Maronite Rite - Our Lady's Maronite Catholic Church"
. Archived from
the original
on 25 May 2016
. Retrieved
16 June
2016
.
- ^
a
b
c
"MARONITE HISTORY & SAINT MARON - St. Anthony Maronite Catholic Church"
. Retrieved
16 June
2016
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Conversion and Continuity
. 1990.
ISBN
9780888448095
– via books.google.com.
- ^
"There are 3,198,600 Maronites in the World"
. Maronite-heritage.com. 3 January 1994
. Retrieved
3 January
2015
.
- ^
Attwater, Donald
;
The Christian Churches of the East
- ^
Frendo, J. D. (1982). "Who Killed Anastasius II?".
The Jewish Quarterly Review
.
72
(3): 202?204.
doi
:
10.2307/1454219
.
JSTOR
1454219
.
- ^
"The Story of the Maronite Catholics - The Maronite Monks of Adoration"
. Archived from
the original
on 22 June 2016
. Retrieved
16 June
2016
.
- ^
Crawford, Robert W. (1955).
"William of Tyre and the Maronites"
.
Speculum
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30
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Bibliography
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Michael Breydy: Geschichte der syro-arabischen Literatur der Maroniten vom VII. bis XVI. Jahrhundert. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1985,
ISBN
3-531-03194-5
- Moosa, Matti,
The Maronites in History
, Gorgias Press, Piscataway, New Jersey, 2005,
ISBN
978-1-59333-182-5
- R. J. Mouawad,
Les Maronites. Chretiens du Liban
, Brepols Publishers, Turnhout, 2009,
ISBN
978-2-503-53041-3
- Kamal Salibi,
A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered
(
University of California Press
, 1990).
- Maronite Church
.
New Catholic Encyclopedia
, Second Edition, 2003.
- Riley-Smith, Johnathan.
The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades
(
Oxford University Press
, Oxford, 1995)
- Suermann, Harald.
Histoire des origines de l'Eglise Maronite
, PUSEK, Kaslik, 2010,
ISBN
978-9953-491-67-7
- Barber, Malcolm.
Letters from the East: Crusades, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th?13th centuries
, Ashgate Press, Reading, United Kingdom, 2013,
ISBN
978-1-4724-1393-2
External links
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