16th-century Portuguese poet
Luis Vaz de Camoes
(
Portuguese pronunciation:
[lu?i?
?va?
ð?
ka?moj?]
;
c.
1524
or 1525 ? 10 June 1580), sometimes rendered in English as
Camoens
or
Camoens
[1]
(
KAM
-oh-?nz
), is considered
Portugal
's and the Portuguese language's greatest
poet
. His mastery of verse has been compared to that of
Shakespeare
,
Milton
,
Vondel
,
Homer
,
Virgil
and
Dante
. He wrote a considerable amount of lyrical poetry and drama but is best remembered for his epic work
Os Lusiadas
(
The Lusiads
). His collection of poetry
The Parnasum of Luis de Camoes
was lost during his life. The influence of his masterpiece
Os Lusiadas
is so profound that
Portuguese
is sometimes called the "language of Camoes".
The day of his death, 10 June
OS
, is
Portugal's national day
.
Life
[
edit
]
Origins and youth
[
edit
]
Much of the information about Luis de Camoes' biography raises doubts and, probably, much of what circulates about him is nothing more than the typical folklore that is formed around a famous figure. Only a few dates are documented that guide its trajectory.
[2]
The ancestral home of the
Camoes family
had its origins in the
Kingdom of Galicia
, not far from
Cape Finisterre
. On his paternal side, Luis de Camoes was descended from Vasco Pires de Camoes, Galician
troubadour
, warrior and
fidalgo
, who moved to Portugal in 1370 and received great benefits from the king in positions, honours and lands, and whose poetry, of a nationalist nature, contributed to ward off Breton and Italian influence and to shape a national troubadour style.
[3]
[4]
His son Antao Vaz de Camoes served in the
Red Sea
and married Dona Guiomar da Gama, related to
Vasco da Gama
. From this marriage were born Simao Vaz de Camoes, who served in the Royal Navy and did trade in Guinea and India, and another brother, Bento, who followed the career of a man of letters and entered the
priesthood
, joining the
Austin friars
at the
Monastery of Santa Cruz
, which was a prestigious school for many young Portuguese gentlemen. Simao married Dona Ana de Sa e Macedo, also from a noble family, from
Santarem
. Her only son, Luis Vaz de Camoes, according to Jayne, Fernandes and some other authors, was born in
Lisbon
in 1524. Three years later, the city was being threatened by the plague, the family moved, following the court, to
Coimbra
.
[3]
[5]
However, other cities claim the honour of being his birthplace: Coimbra, Santarem and Alenquer. Although the first biographers of Camoes, Severin de Faria and Manoel Correa, initially gave his year of birth as 1517,
[6]
records of the Lists of the
Casa da India
, later consulted by
Manuel de Faria e Sousa
, seem to establish that Camoes was actually born in Lisbon, in 1524.
[7]
[8]
[9]
The arguments for placing his birth outside of Lisbon are weak; but neither is it completely beyond doubt,
[10]
[11]
so the most recent scholarship considers his place and date of birth uncertain.
[5]
[12]
About his childhood much remains unknown. At twelve or thirteen he would have been protected and educated by his uncle Bento, who sent him to Coimbra to study. Tradition says that he was an undisciplined student, but eager for knowledge, interested in history, cosmography and classic and modern literature. However, his name does not appear in the records of the
University of Coimbra
, but it is certain from his elaborate style and the profusion of erudite quotes that appear in his works that in some way he received a solid education. It is possible that his uncle himself, a chancellor of the university and the
prior
of the Monastery of Santa Cruz, instructed him or that he studied at the monastery college. At about twenty years of age he probably moved to Lisbon, before completing his studies. His family was poor, but being noble, he could be admitted to the court of
John III
where he established fruitful intellectual contacts and began his career as a poet.
[12]
[13]
[14]
It was suggested that he earned his living as a
preceptor
of Francisco, son of the
Count of Linhares
, D. Antonio de Noronha, but this now seems hardly plausible.
[14]
It is also said that he adopted a
bohemian
lifestyle, frequenting taverns and getting involved in tumultuous love affairs. Several ladies are cited by name in late biographies of the poet as having been the object of his affection, but those identifications are currently considered apocryphal additions to his legend. Among them, for example, there was talk of a passion for
Infanta
Dona Maria
, sister of the king, but that audacity would have earned him time in prison. Another was Catarina de Ataide, with whom he allegedly had a frustrated love affair that resulted in his self-exile, first in
Ribatejo
, and then by enlisting as a soldier in
Ceuta
. The reason for the latter trip is doubtful, but the trip itself is accepted fact; he remained there two years and lost his right eye in a naval battle in the
Strait of Gibraltar
. Back in Lisbon, he wasted no time in resuming his bohemian life.
[15]
[16]
[17]
A document dating from 1550 states that he had enlisted to travel to India: "
Luis de Camoes, son of Simao Vaz and Ana de Sa, living in Lisbon, at Mouraria;
squire
, 25 years old,
ginger
bearded, brought his father as guarantor; goes on the ship of S. Pedro dos Burgaleses ... among the men-at-arms
". As it turns out, he didn't board immediately. In a
Corpus Christi
procession, he got into an altercation with a certain Goncalo Borges, employee of the Royal Palace, and wounded him with a sword. Sentenced to prison, he later received a letter of pardon and was released by royal order on 7 March 1553, which says: "
he is a young man and poor and he is going to serve in India this year
".
Manuel de Faria e Sousa
found in the registers of the
Armada of India
, for that year 1553, under the title "Gente de guerra" ("Men of war"), the following statement: "Fernando Casado, son of Manuel Casado and Branca Queimada, residents of Lisbon, squire; Luis de Camoes, son of Simao Vaz and Ana de Sa, squire, took his place; and he received 2400 like the others".
[18]
Camoes set sail on
Palm Sunday
, the 24th of March 1553. His last words, he says in a letter, were those of
Scipio Africanus
, “Ingrata patria, non possidebis ossa mea” (Ungrateful fatherland, you will not possess my bones).
Journey to the East
[
edit
]
He traveled aboard the carrack
Sao Bento
, belonging to the fleet of Fernao Alvares Cabral, which left the
Tagus
on March 24, 1553. During the trip he passed through the regions where
Vasco da Gama
had sailed, faced a storm in the Cape of Good Hope
Cabo da Boa Esperanca
where the three other ships in the fleet were lost, and landed in
Goa
in 1554. Soon he enlisted in the service of the viceroy D. Afonso de Noronha and fought in the expedition against the king of Chembe (or "da Pimenta").
[20]
In 1555, Noronha's successor D.
Pedro Mascarenhas
ordered Manuel de Vasconcelos to fight the
Moors
in the
Red Sea
. Camoes accompanied him, but the squadron did not find the enemy and went to winter in
Ormuz
, in the Persian Gulf.
[21]
Probably at this time he had already started writing
Os Lusiadas
. When he returned to Goa in 1556, he met D.
Francisco Barreto
in the government, and composed for him the "
Auto de Filodemo
", which suggests that Barreto looked upon Camoes with favor. The early biographers, however, differ about Camoes' relations with that ruler. At the same time, an anonymous satire criticizing the prevalence of immorality and corruption, which was attributed to Camoes, also was published. Since satires were condemned by the Ordinances of King Manuel, Camoes would have been arrested for that. But it has also been hypothesized that the arrest was actually for debts that Camoes had incurred. It is possible that he remained in prison until 1561, and that he may have been convicted of additional offenses before then. At any rate, when D. Francisco Coutinho assumed the governship of India Camoes was released and came under that man's employ and protection. He was appointed to the position of Superintendent for the Dead and Missing for Macau in 1562, serving
de facto
from 1563 until 1564 or 1565. At that time, Macau was a trading post still in formation and almost uninhabited.
[22]
[23]
Tradition says that there he wrote part of Os Lusiadas in a cave, which later was named after him.
[21]
On the trip back to Goa, he was shipwrecked, as tradition says, near the mouth of the
Mekong
River, managing to save only himself and the manuscript of Os Lusiadas, an event that inspired the famous
redondilha
"
Sobre os rios que vao
", considered by Antonio Sergio the "backbone" of the Camonian lyric, as is repeatedly cited in the critical literature. The trauma of the shipwreck, in the words of Leal de Matos, had the most profound impact on redefining the themes of Os Lusiadas, this being noticeable beginning with
Canto
VII, a fact already noted by
Diogo do Couto
, a friend of the poet who partly accompanied the work as it was being written.
His rescue took months to occur, and there is no record of how it happened, but he was taken to
Malacca
, where he received a new arrest warrant for misappropriating the assets of the dead that had been entrusted to him. The exact date of his return to Goa is not known, but he may have remained in prison there for some time. Couto says that in the shipwreck
Dinamene
, a Chinese maiden with whom Camoes had fallen in love, died, but Ribeiro and others reject that story.
[24]
The next viceroy, D.
Antao de Noronha
, was a longtime friend of Camoes, having first met him during his Morocco adventure. Certain biographers claim that he was promised a position at the trading post at Chaul, but he did not take up the position. Severim de Faria said that the final years spent in Goa were occupied with poetry and military activities, where he always showed bravery, readiness and loyalty to the Crown.
[25]
It is difficult to determine what his daily life in the East would have been like, beyond what can be extrapolated from his military status. It seems certain that he always lived modestly and may have shared a house with friends, "in one of those collective dwellings where it was customary for people from the homeland to associate", as Ramalho notes. Some of these friends must have been in possession of a certain degree of culture and would have provided illustrious companionship. Ribeiro, Saraiva and Moura admit that he may have encountered, among other figures,
Fernao Mendes Pinto
,
Fernao Vaz Dourado
, Fernao Alvares do Oriente,
Garcia de Orta
and the aforementioned
Diogo do Couto
, creating opportunities for debating literary topics and the like. He may also have attended lectures at one of Goa's colleges or religious establishments.
[26]
Ribeiro adds that
- "These fellows who lived in Goa, far from their homeland and family, between campaigns against the Turk (which took place in the summer) and many of them having little to do (in winter), in addition to the aforementioned lectures and constant readings (including many of the classics: Ovid, Horace, Virgil), enjoying the company of women and musical gatherings, living among themselves without regard to social distinctions, their main objective was to have fun as much as possible, even when writing poetry. Thus their predilection for satire, which had a strongly negative social impact and exposed them to imprisonment per the Manueline Ordinances (Title LXXIX), and therefore carried an edge of adventure and risk. An example of this is the "Tournament Satire", a mockery that is mentioned by Faria e Sousa and about which, unlike "Os Disbarates da India", there is no scholarly contestation of its Camonian authorship; it may in fact be the reason for one of Camoes' arrests."
[27]
At such meetings the participants were both men-at-arms and men of letters, and were in search not only of military success and material fortune, but also of the fame and glory born of culture. This was one of the great aspirations of the
Humanism
of that era, and from it may have sprung the idea of creating an
academy
, reproducing within the limitations of the local context, the model of
Renaissance
academies such as the one founded in
Florence
by
Marsilio Ficino
and his circle, where
Neoplatonic
ideals were cultivated.
Return to Portugal
[
edit
]
Whether it was by invitation, or simply a matter of taking the chance to bridge part of the distance that separated him from his homeland, it is not known for certain, but in December 1567 Camoes embarked on Pedro Barreto's ship to
Sofala
, on the
Island of Mozambique
, where Barreto had been appointed governor, and there Camoes would wait for transport to Lisbon at a future date. The early biographers say that Pedro Barreto was treacherous, making false promises to Camoes, so that after two years Diogo do Couto found him in a precarious state:
[28]
[29]
- "In Mozambique we found that Prince of Poets of his day, my companion and friend Luis de Camoes, so poor that he was dependent on friends to feed him. Upon embarking for the kingdom we gathered all the clothing that he needed, and there was no shortage of people who gave him to eat. And that winter that he was in Mozambique, having just finished his Lusiadas in preparation for printing, he had been writing a great deal in another book which he entitled "The Parnassus of Luis de Camoes", it being a book of great erudition, doctrine and philosophy, but which was stolen from him."
[30]
[31]
While attempting to set sail with Couto, Camoes found his departure embargoed in the amount of two hundred
cruzados
by Barreto, demanding reimbursement for monies spent on the poet's behalf. His friends, however, collected the amount and Camoes was released,
[32]
arriving in
Cascais
aboard the
carrack
Santa Clara
on April 7, 1570.
[28]
[29]
After so many adventures, he finally completed Os Lusiadas, presenting them in recitation to
Sebastian
. The king, still a teenager, ordered the work to be published in 1572, also granting a small pension to "Luis de Camoes, noble knight of my House", in payment for services rendered in India. The value of the pension did not exceed fifteen thousand
reis
a year, which, if not generous, was also not as miserly as has been suggested, considering that the Royal Palace's ladies-in-waiting received around ten thousand reis. For a veteran soldier, the sum must have been considered sufficient and honorable at the time. But the pension would've only lasted for three years, and although the grant was renewable, it seems that it was paid irregularly, causing the poet to experience material difficulties.
[33]
[34]
Camoes lived out his final years in a room in a house near the Convent of Santa Ana, in a state, according to tradition, of the most unworthy poverty, "without a rag to cover him". Le Gentil considered this view a romantic exaggeration, as he was still able to keep a slave named Jau, whom he had brought with him from the east, and official documents attest that he had some means of livelihood. After being embittered by the Portuguese defeat at the
Battle of Alcacer Quibir
, in which Sebastian disappeared, leading Portugal to lose its independence to the Spanish crown,
[note 2]
he was stricken by bubonic
plague
, according to Le Gentil. He was transported to a hospital and died on June 10, 1580, being buried, according to
Faria e Sousa
, in a shallow grave in the Convent of Santa Ana, or in the cemetery of the poor in the same hospital, according to
Teofilo Braga
.
[35]
[36]
His mother, having survived him, began to receive his pension as an inheritance. The receipts, found at
Torre do Tombo
, the Portuguese national archive, document the date of the poet's death,
[5]
although an
epitaph
written by D. Goncalo Coutinho has been preserved which mistakenly assigns his death to the year 1579.
[37]
After the
1755 earthquake
which destroyed most of Lisbon, attempts were made to find the remains of Camoes, but to no avail. The bones deposited in 1880 in a tomb in the
Jeronimos Monastery
are, in all probability, someone else's.
[38]
Appearance, character, loves and iconography
[
edit
]
The testimonies of his contemporaries describe him as a man of average size, with reddish blond hair, blind in his right eye, skilled in all physical exercises and with a temperamental disposition, having little difficulty in engaging in fights. It is said that he had great value as a soldier, exhibiting courage, combativeness, a sense of honor and willingness to serve, a good companion in his spare time, liberal, cheerful and witty when the blows of fortune did not overwhelm his spirit and sadden him. He was aware of his merit as a man, as a soldier and as a poet.
[39]
All efforts made to discover the definitive identity of his
muse
were in vain and several contradictory proposals were made about alleged women present in his life. Camoes himself suggested, in one of his poems, that there were several muses to inspire him, when he said "in various flames it was often burning".
[40]
The names of ladies supposed to have been his loved ones that appear in his poems are always used generically, and can therefore be ideal figures; no mention of any ladies identifiable by name is given in the poet's first biographies, those of Pedro de Mariz and that of Severim de Faria, who only collected rumors about "some loves in Paco da Rainha (the Queen’s Household)”. Reference to Catarina de Ataide only appeared in the edition of Rimas de Faria e Sousa, in the middle of the 17th century and to the Infanta on Jose Maria Rodrigues, which was only published in the early 20th century. The celebrated
Dinamene
also appears to be a poetic image rather than a real person.
[41]
Ribeiro proposed several alternatives to explain it: the name might have been a
cryptonym
of Dona Joana Meneses (DIna = D.Ioana + Mene), one of his possible loves, who died on the way to
the Indies
and was buried in the sea, daughter of Violante, countess of Linhares, whom he would also have loved in Portugal, and pointed out the occurrence of the name Dinamene in poems written probably around the arrival in India, before proceeding to China, where it is said that he would have found the girl. He also referred to the opinion of researchers who claim the mention of Couto, the only primitive reference to the Chinese outside of the Camonian work itself, to have been falsified, being introduced
a posteriori
, with the possibility that it is even a spelling error, a corruption of "dignamente" ("worthily"). In the final version of Couto's manuscript, the name would not even have been cited, even though proving it is difficult with the disappearance of the manuscript.
[24]
Probably executed between 1573 and 1575, the so-called "portrait painted in red", illustrated at the opening of the article, is considered by
Vasco Graca Moura
as "the only and precious reliable document we have to know the features of the epic, portrayed in life by a professional painter ".
[42]
What is known of this portrait is a copy, made at the request of the 3rd
Duke of Lafoes
, executed by Luis Jose Pereira de Resende between 1819 and 1844, from the original that was found in a green silk bag in the rubble of the fire at the palace of the
Counts of Ericeira
, which has since disappeared. It is a "very faithful copy" that:
[D]ue to the restricted dimensions of the drawing, the texture of the blood, creating spots of distribution of values, the rigor of the contours and the definition of the contrasted planes, the reticulated neutral that harmonizes the background and highlights the bust of the portrait, the type of the wrap around limits from which the enlightening signature runs down, in short, the symbolic apparatus of the image, captured in the pose of a graphic book illustration, was intended for the opening of an engraving on a copper plate, to illustrate one of the first editions of
The Lusiads
...
[43]
Also surviving is a miniature painted in India in 1581, by order of Fernao Teles de Meneses and offered to the viceroy D. Luis de Ataide, who, according to testimonies of the time, was very similar to him in appearance.
[39]
Another portrait was found in the 1970s by Maria Antonieta de Azevedo, dated 1556 and showing the poet in prison.
[44]
The first medal with its
effigy
appeared in 1782, ordered to mint by the Baron of Dillon in England, where Camoes is crowned with laurels and dressed in coat of arms, with the inscription "Apollo Portuguez / Honor de Hespanha / Nasceo 1524 / Morreo 1579". In 1793, a reproduction of this medal was coined in Portugal, by order of Tomas Jose de Aquino, Librarian of the
Real Mesa Censoria
.
[45]
Over the centuries the image of Camoes was represented numerous times in engraving, painting and sculpture, by Portuguese and foreign artists, and several monuments were erected in his honor,
[46]
notably the great
Monument to Camoes
installed in 1867 in
Praca de Luis de Camoes
, in Lisbon, by
Victor Bastos
, which is the center of official public ceremonies and popular demonstrations.
[47]
[48]
He was also honored in musical compositions, appeared with his effigy on medals,
[46]
currency notes,
[49]
stamps
[50]
and coins,
[51]
and as a character in novels, poetry and plays.
[52]
The film
Camoes
, directed by
Jose Leitao de Barros
, was the first Portuguese film to participate in the
Cannes Film Festival
, in 1946.
[53]
Among the famous artists who took him as a model for his works are
Bordalo Pinheiro
,
[54]
Jose Simoes de Almeida
,
[55]
Francisco Augusto Metrass
,
Antonio Soares dos Reis
,
Horace Vernet
,
Jose Malhoa
,
Vieira Portuense
,
[46]
Domingos Sequeira
[56]
and
Lagoa Henriques
.
[57]
A crater
on the planet Mercury and
an asteroid
in the main belt were named after him.
[58]
[59]
Work
[
edit
]
Context
[
edit
]
Camoes lived in the final phase of the European
Renaissance
, a period marked by many changes in culture and society, which mark the end of the
Middle Ages
and the beginning of the
Modern Age
and the transition from
feudalism
to
capitalism
. It was called "renaissance" due to the rediscovery and revaluation of the cultural references of
Classical Antiquity
, which guided the changes of this period towards a
humanist
and
naturalist
ideal that affirmed the dignity of man, placing him at the center of the universe, making him the researcher par excellence of nature, and promoting reason and science as arbitrators of manifest life.
[60]
[61]
[62]
During this period, several scientific instruments were invented and several natural laws and physical entities previously unknown were discovered; the knowledge of the face of the planet itself changed after the discoveries of the
great navigations
. The spirit of intellectual speculation and scientific research was on the rise, causing Physics, Mathematics, Medicine, Astronomy, Philosophy, Engineering, Philology and several other branches of knowledge to reach a level of complexity, efficiency and accuracy unprecedented, which led to an optimistic conception of human history as a continuous expansion and always for the better.
[61]
[63]
In a way, the Renaissance was an original and eclectic attempt to harmonize pagan Neoplatonism with the Christian religion, eros with charitas, together with oriental, Jewish and Arab influences, and where the study of magic, astrology and the occult was not absent.
[64]
It was also the time when strong national states began to be created, commerce and cities expanded and the bourgeoisie became a force of great social and economic importance, contrasting with the relative decline in the influence of religion in world affairs.
[65]
In the 16th century, the time in which Camoes lived, the influence of the Italian Renaissance expanded throughout Europe. However, several of its most typical features were declining, in particular because of a series of political disputes and wars that altered the European political map, with Italy losing its place as a power, and the split of Catholicism, with the emergence of the
Protestant Reformation
. In the Catholic reaction,
Counter-Reformation
was launched, the
Inquisition
was reactivated and ecclesiastical censorship was rekindled. At the same time,
Machiavelli
's doctrines became widespread, dissociating ethics from the practice of power. The result was the reaffirmation of the power of religion over the profane world and the formation of an agitated spiritual, political, social and intellectual atmosphere, with strong doses of pessimism, reverberating unfavorably on the former freedom that artists enjoyed. Despite this, the intellectual and artistic acquisitions of the High Renaissance that were still fresh and shining before the eyes could not be forgotten immediately, even if their philosophical substrate could no longer remain valid in the face of new political, religious and social facts. The new art that was made, although inspired by the source of classicism, translated it into restless, anxious, distorted, ambivalent forms, attached to intellectualist preciosities, characteristics that reflected the dilemmas of the century and define the general style of this phase as
mannerist
.
[66]
[67]
Since the middle of the 15th century, Portugal had established itself as a great naval and commercial power, its arts were developing and enthusiasm for maritime conquests was boiling. The reign of
D. Joao II
was marked by the formation of a feeling of national pride, and in the time of
D. Manuel I
, as Spina & Bechara say, pride had given way to delirium, to the pure euphoria of world domination. At the beginning of the 16th century,
Garcia de Resende
lamented that there was no one who could celebrate so many feats worthily, claiming that there was epic material superior to that of the Romans and Trojans. Filling this gap,
Joao de Barros
wrote his cavalry novel, "
A Cronica do Imperador Clarimundo
" (1520), in epic format. Shortly thereafter,
Antonio Ferreira
appeared, establishing himself as a mentor of the classicist generation and challenging his contemporaries to sing the glories of Portugal in high style. When Camoes appeared, the land was prepared for the apotheosis of the homeland, a homeland that had fought hard to conquer its sovereignty, first of the Moors and after Castile, had developed an adventurous spirit that had taken it across the oceans, expanding the known borders of the world and opening new routes of trade and exploration, defeating enemy armies and the hostile forces of nature.
[68]
But at this point, however, the political and cultural crisis was already being announced, materializing shortly after his death, when the country lost its sovereignty to Spain.
[69]
Overview
[
edit
]
Camoes' production is divided into three genres: lyrical, epic and theatrical. His lyrical work was immediately appreciated as a high achievement. He demonstrated his virtuosity especially in
cantos
and elegies, but his
redondilhas
are not far behind. In fact, he was a master in this form, giving new life to the art of
gloss
, instilling in it spontaneity and simplicity, a delicate irony and a lively phrasing, taking courtesan poetry to its highest level, and showing that he also knew how to express perfectly joy and relaxation. His epic production is synthesized in '
Os Lusiadas
', an intense glorification of Portuguese feats, not only of his military victories, but also the conquest over elements and physical space, with recurring use of classic allegories. The idea of a national epic had existed in the Portuguese heart since the 15th century, when the navigations started, but it was up to Camoes, in the following century, to materialize it. In his dramatic works he sought to fuse nationalist and classic elements.
[40]
Probably if he had remained in Portugal, as a courtly poet, he would never have achieved the mastery of his art. The experiences he accumulated as a soldier and navigator enriched his worldview and excited his talent. Through them, he managed to free himself from the formal limitations of courtesan poetry and the difficulties he went through, the profound anguish of exile, the longing for his country, indelibly impregnated his spirit and communicated with his work, and from there influenced in a marked way subsequent generations of Portuguese writers. His best poems shine exactly for what is genuine in the suffering expressed and the honesty of that expression, and this is one of the main reasons that put his poetry at such a high level.
[40]
Its sources were numerous. He dominated
Latin
and
Spanish
, and demonstrated a solid knowledge of
Greco-Roman mythology
, ancient and modern European history, Portuguese chroniclers and
classical literature
, with authors such as
Ovid
,
Xenophon
,
Lucan
,
Valerius Flaccus
,
Horace
standing out, but especially
Homer
and
Virgil
, from whom he borrowed various structural and stylistic elements and sometimes even passages in almost literal transcription. According to his quotations, he also seems to have had a good knowledge of works by
Ptolemy
,
Diogenes Laertius
,
Pliny the Elder
,
Strabo
and
Pomponius Mela
, among other historians and ancient scientists. Among the moderns, he was aware of the Italian production of
Francesco Petrarca
,
Ludovico Ariosto
,
Torquato Tasso
,
Giovanni Boccaccio
and
Jacopo Sannazaro
, and of Castilian literature.
[70]
[71]
For those who consider the Renaissance to be a homogeneous historical period, informed by classical ideals and extending to the end of the 16th century, Camoes is quite simply a Renaissance, but in general it is recognized that the 16th century was largely dominated by a stylistic derivation called
Mannerism
, which at various points is an anti-classical school and in many ways prefigures the
Baroque
. Thus, for many authors, it is more appropriate to describe the Camonian style as mannerist, distinguishing it from typical Renaissance classicism. This is justified by the presence of several language resources and an approach to its themes that are not in agreement with the doctrines of balance, economy, tranquility, harmony, unity and invariable idealism, which are the fundamental axes of Renaissance classicism. Camoes, after a typically classic initial phase, moved on to other paths and anxiety and drama became his companions. Throughout The Lusiads the signs of a political and spiritual crisis are visible, the prospect of the decline of the empire and the character of the Portuguese remains in the air, censored by bad customs and the lack of appreciation for the arts, alternating with excerpts in which its enthusiastic apology. They are also typical of Mannerism, and would become even more Baroque, the taste for contrast, for emotional flare, for conflict, for paradox, for religious propaganda, for the use of complex figures of speech and preciousness, even for the grotesque and monstrous, many of them common features in Camonian work.
[67]
[69]
[72]
[73]
The mannerist nature of his work is also marked by the ambiguities generated by the rupture with the past and by the concomitant adherence to it, the first manifested in the visualization of a new era and in the use of new poetic formulas from Italy, and the second, in the use of archaisms typical of the Middle Ages. Along with the use of formal Renaissance and classicist models, he cultivated the medieval genres of
vilancete
,
cantiga
and
trova
. For Joaquim dos Santos, the contradictory character of his poetry is found in the contrast between two opposing premises: idealism and practical experience. He combined typical values of humanist rationalism with other derivatives of
cavalry
,
crusades
and
feudalism
, aligned the constant propaganda of the Catholic faith with ancient mythology, responsible in the aesthetic plan for all the action that materializes the final realization, discarding the mediocre aurea dear to classics to advocate the primacy of the exercise of weapons and the glorious conquest.
[74]
Os Lusiadas
[
edit
]
Os Lusiadas, or The Lusiads is considered the Portuguese epic par excellence. The title itself already suggests its nationalist intentions, being derived from the ancient Roman denomination of Portugal,
Lusitania
. It is one of the most important epics of the modern age due to its greatness and universality. The epic tells the story of
Vasco da Gama
and the Portuguese heroes who sailed around the
Cape of Good Hope
and opened a
new route to India
. It is a humanist epic, even in its contradictions, in the association of pagan mythology with the Christian view, in the opposite feelings about war and empire, in the taste of rest and in the desire for adventure, in the appreciation of sensual pleasure and in the demands of an ethical life, in the perception of greatness and in the presentiment of decline, in the heroism paid for with suffering and struggle.
[75]
[76]
The poem opens with the famous verses:
"As armas e os baroes assinalados
Que, da Ocidental praia Lusitana,
Por mares nunca de antes navegados
Passaram ainda alem da
Taprobana
,
Em perigos e guerras esforcados,
Mais do que prometia a forca humana,
E entre gente remota edificaram
Novo Reino, que tanto sublimaram;
.....
Cantando espalharei por toda a parte,
Se a tanto me ajudar o engenho e arte."
|
"The feats of Arms, and famed heroick Host,?
?from occidental Lusitanian strand,
?who o'er the waters ne'er by seaman crost,
?fared beyond the
Taprobane-land
,
?forceful in perils and in battle-post,
?with more than promised force of mortal hand;
and in the regions of a distant race
rear'd a new throne so haught in Pride of Place.
.....
My song would sound o'er Earth's extremest part
were mine the genius, mine the Poet's art."
|
?Camoes:
Os Lusiadas
, Canto I
|
?Translated by
Sir Richard Francis Burton
[77]
|
The ten
cantos
of the poem add up to 1,102
stanzas
in a total of 8,816 decyllable verses, using the
ottava rima
(abababcc).
[78]
[79]
After an introduction, an invocation and a dedication to King Sebastian, the action begins, which merges myths and historical facts. Vasco da Gama, sailing along the coast of Africa, is observed by the assembly of classical gods, who discuss the fate of the expedition, which is protected by
Venus
and attacked by
Bacchus
. Resting for a few days in
Malindi
, at the request of the local king Vasco da Gama narrates all Portuguese history, from its origins to the journey they undertake. The cantos III, IV and V contain some of the best passages of the entire epic: the episode of
Ines de Castro
, which becomes a symbol of love and death, the
Battle of Aljubarrota
, the vision of
D. Manuel I
, the description of
St. Elmo's fire
, the story of the giant
Adamastor
. Back on the ship, the poet takes advantage of his free time to tell the story of
the Twelve of England
, while Bacchus summons the sea gods to destroy the Portuguese fleet. Venus intervenes and ships reach
Calicut
, India. There,
Paulo da Gama
receives the king's representatives and explains the meaning of the banners that adorn the flagship. On the return trip the sailors enjoy the island created for them by Venus, rewarding the nymphs with their favors. One of them sings the glorious future of Portugal and the scene ends with a description of the universe by
Tethys
and Vasco da Gama. Then the journey continues home.
[40]
In Os Lusiadas, Camoes achieves a remarkable harmony between classical scholarship and practical experience, developed with consummate technical skill, describing Portuguese adventures with moments of serious thought mixed with others of delicate sensitivity and humanism. The great descriptions of the battles, the manifestation of the natural forces, the sensual encounters, transcend the allegory and the classicist allusion that permeate all the work and present themselves as a fluent speech and always of a high aesthetic level, not only for its narrative character especially well achieved, but also by the superior mastery of all the resources of the language and the art of versification, with a knowledge of a wide range of styles, used in efficient combination. The work is also a serious warning for Christian kings to abandon small rivalries and unite against Muslim expansion.
[40]
The structure of the work is in itself worthy of interest, as, according to
Jorge de Sena
, nothing is arbitrary in Os Lusiadas. Among the arguments he presented was the use of the golden section, a defined relationship between the parts and the whole, organizing the set in ideal proportions that emphasize especially significant passages. Sena demonstrated that when applying the golden section to the whole work, it falls precisely on the verse that describes the arrival of the Portuguese in India. Applying the separate section to the two resulting parts, in the first part comes the episode that reports the death of Ines de Castro and, in the second, the stanza that narrates
Cupid
's efforts to unite the Portuguese and the nymphs, which for Sena reinforces the importance of love throughout the composition.
[80]
Two other elements give Os Lusiadas its modernity and distance it from classicism: the introduction of doubt, contradiction and questioning, in disagreement with the affirmative certainty that characterizes the classic epic, and the primacy of
rhetoric
over action, replacing the world of facts with that of words, which do not fully recover reality and evolve into
metalanguage
, with the same disruptive effect on the traditional epic.
[81]
According to Costa Pimpao, there is no evidence that Camoes intended to write his epic before he traveled to India, although heroic themes were already present in his previous production. It is possible that he drew some inspiration from fragments of the
Decades of Asia
, by
Joao de Barros
, and the
History of the Discovery and Conquest of India by the Portuguese
, by
Fernao Lopes de Castanheda
. He was certainly well-informed on classical mythology before that, as well as on ancient epic literature. Apparently, the poem started to take shape as early as 1554, with Storck considering that his determination to write it was born during the sea voyage itself. He was seen working on it in Mozambique by his friend historian
Diogo do Couto
between 1568 and 1569.
[70]
The success of the publication of Os Lusiadas supposedly required a second edition in the same year as the
princeps
edition. The two differ in countless details and it was debated at length which one would in fact be the original. Nor is it clear to whom the amendments to the second text are due. Currently, the edition that shows the publisher's brand, a
pelican
, with its neck turned to the left, which is called edition A, carried out under the supervision of the author, is recognized as original. However, edition B was for a long time taken as
princeps
, with disastrous consequences for the later critical analysis of the work. Apparently, edition B was produced later, around 1584 or 1585, in a clandestine manner, taking the fictitious date of 1572 to bypass the delays of censorship of the time if it were published as a new edition and to correct the serious defects of another 1584 edition, the so-called
piscos
edition.
[82]
However, Maria Helena Paiva raised the hypothesis that editions A and B are only variants of the same edition, which was corrected after the typographic composition, but while printing was already in progress. According to the researcher, "the need to make the most of the press led to the conclusion that, after printing a shape, which consisted of several folios, a first test was taken, which was corrected while the press continued, now with the corrected text. There were, therefore, uncorrected printed folios and corrected printed folios, which were grouped indistinctly in the same copy", so that there were no two copies exactly the same in the press system of that time.
[83]
Rimas
[
edit
]
Camoes' lyric work, dispersed in manuscripts,
[84]
was collected and published posthumously in 1595 under the title
Rimas
(
Rhymes
). Throughout the 17th century, the growing prestige of his epic contributed to raise the appreciation for these other poems even more. The collection includes
redondilhas
,
odes
,
glosses
,
cantigas
, twists or variations,
sextilhas
,
sonnets
,
elegies
,
eclogues
and other small stanzas. His lyrical poetry comes from several different sources: the sonnets generally follow the Italian style derived from
Petrarch
, the songs took the model of Petrarch and
Pietro Bembo
. In the odes, the influence of the
troubadour
poetry of chivalry and classical poetry is verified, but with a more refined style; in the
sextilhas
the Provencal influence is clear; in the redondilhas it expanded the form, deepened the lyricism and introduced a theme, worked on antitheses and paradoxes, unknown in the old tradition of
Cantigas de amigo
, and the elegies are quite classicist. Its resorts follow an epistolary style, with moralizing themes. Eclogues are perfect pieces of the pastoral genre, derived from Virgil and the Italians.
[85]
[86]
[87]
The influence of Spanish poetry by
Garcilaso de la Vega
,
Jorge de Montemor
,
Juan Boscan
,
Gregorio Silvestre
and several other names was also detected in many points of his lyric, as his commentator Faria e Sousa pointed out.
[88]
Despite the care of the first editor of
Rimas
, Fernao Rodrigues Lobo Soropita, in the 1595 edition, several apocryphal poems were included. Many poems were discovered over the next few centuries and attributed to him, but not always with careful critical analysis. The result was that, for example, while in the original Rhymes there were 65 sonnets, in the 1861 edition of Juromenha there were 352; in the 1953 edition of Aguiar e Silva 166 pieces were still listed.
[40]
[89]
[90]
In addition, many editions modernized or "embellished" the original text, a practice that was particularly pronounced after the 1685 edition of Faria e Sousa, giving rise to and rooting a tradition of its own in this adulterated lesson that caused enormous difficulties for critical study. More scientific studies only began to be undertaken at the end of the 19th century, with the contribution of
Wilhelm Storck
and
Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcelos
, who discarded several apocryphal compositions. At the beginning of the 20th century, work continued with Jose Maria Rodrigues and Afonso Lopes Vieira, who published Rimas in 1932 in an edition they called "critica" ("criticism"), although it did not deserve the name: it adopted large parts of Faria and Sousa's lesson, but editors claimed to have used the original editions, from 1595 and 1598. On the other hand, they definitely raised the issue of textual fraud that had been perpetuating for a long time and had tampered with the poems to the point of becoming unrecognizable.
[89]
One example is enough:
- 1595 edition: "
Aqui, o Ninfas minhas, vos pintei / Todo de amores um jardim suave; / Das aves, pedras, aguas vos contei, / Sem me ficar bonina, fera ou ave.
"
- 1685 edition: "
Aqui, fremosas ninfas, vos pintei / Todo de amores um jardim suave; / De aguas, de pedras, de arvores contei, / De flores, de almas, feras, de uma, outra ave.
"
[91]
It seems impossible to reach a definitive result in this purge. However, enough authentic material survives to guarantee his position as the best Portuguese lyricist and the greatest Renaissance poet in Portugal.
[40]
Comedies
[
edit
]
The general content of his works for the stage combines, in the same way as in Os Lusiadas, nationalism and classic inspiration. His production in this field is limited to three works, all in the genre of comedy and in the format of self:
El-Rei Seleuco
,
Filodemo
and
Anfitrioes
. The attribution of
El-Rei Seleuco
to Camoes, however, is controversial. Its existence was not known until 1654, when it appeared published in the first part of Rimas in the Craesbeeck edition, which gave no details about its origin and had little care in editing the text. The play also differs in several aspects from the other two that survived, such as its much shorter length (an act), the existence of a prologue in
prose
, and the less profound and less erudite treatment of the love theme. The theme, of the complicated passion of
Antiochus
, son of King
Seleucus I Nicator
, for his stepmother, Queen Estratonice, was taken from a historical fact from Antiquity transmitted by
Plutarch
and repeated by
Petrarch
and the Spanish popular songwriter, working it in the style by
Gil Vicente
.
[92]
[93]
Anfitrioes
, published in 1587, is an adaptation of
Plautus
'
Amphitryon
, where it emphasizes the comic character of the
Amphitryon
myth, highlighting the omnipotence of love, which subdues even the immortals, also following the Vincentian tradition. The play was written in smaller
redondilhas
and uses bilingualism, using
Castilian
in the lines of the character Sosia, a slave, to mark his low social level in passages that reach the grotesque, a feature that appears in the other pieces as well.
Filodemo
, composed in India and dedicated to the viceroy D.
Francisco Barreto
, is a comedy of morality in five acts, according to the classical division, being, of the three, the one that remained most alive in the interest of the critic due to the multiplicity of human experiences it describes and for the sharpness of psychological observation. The theme is about the love of a servant, Filodemo, for the daughter, Dionisa, of the nobleman in the house of the one he serves, with autobiographical traits.
[40]
[94]
Camoes saw comedy as a secondary genre, of interest only as a diversion of circumstance, but he achieved significant results by transferring the comicality of the characters to the action and refining the plot, so he pointed out a path for the renewal of Portuguese comedy. However, his suggestion was not followed by the growers of the genus who succeeded him.
[40]
Expansion of fame beyond Portugal
[
edit
]
According to
Monteiro
, of the great epic poets of the west, Camoes remains the least known outside his homeland and his masterpiece, Os Lusiadas, is the least known of the great poems in the style. However, from the time he lived and throughout the centuries after Camoes was praised by several non-Lusophone luminaries of Western culture.
Torquato Tasso
, who claimed that Camoes was the only rival he feared,
[95]
dedicated a sonnet to him,
Baltasar Gracian
praised his sharpness and ingenuity, as did
Lope de Vega
.
Cervantes
? stated that he saw Camoes as the "singer of Western civilization."
[96]
He was an influence on the work of
John Milton
and several other English poets,
Goethe
recognized his eminence,
Sir Richard Burton
considered him a master,
[97]
Friedrich Schlegel
called him the ultimate exponent of creation in epic poetry,
[98]
opining that the "perfection" [Vollendung] of
Portuguese poetry
was evident in his "beautiful poems,"
[99]
Humboldt
regarded him as an admirable painter of nature.
[100]
[101]
August-Wilhelm Schlegel
wrote that Camoes, by itself, is worth entire literary works.
[102]
Camoes' fame began to spread across Spain, where he had several admirers since the 16th century, with two
translations
of Os Lusiadas appearing in 1580
[103]
, the year of the poet's death, possibly printed at the behest of
Philip II of Spain
, who at the time was also the king of Portugal. In Luis Gomez de Tapia's edition, Camoes is already mentioned as "famous", and in Benito Caldera's he was compared to Virgil.
[104]
In addition, the king granted him the honorific title of "Prince of the Poets of Spain," which was printed in one of the translations. Philip was perfectly aware of the advantages of using an already established culture for his own purposes rather than suppressing it. As the son of a Portuguese princess, he had no interest in annulling the Portuguese identity or its cultural achievements, and it was to his advantage to assimilate the poet into the Spanish orbit, both to ensure his legitimacy as sovereign of the united crowns, and to enhance the brilliance of Spanish culture.
[105]
Soon his fame would reach
Italy
; Tasso called his work "cult and good" and by 1658 Os Lusiadas would be translated twice, by Oliveira and Paggi.
[104]
Later, associated with Tasso, it became an important paradigm in Italian
Romanticism
. By this time in Portugal, a body of exegetes and commentators had already been formed, giving the study of Camoes great depth. In 1655 Os Lusiadas arrived in England in Fanshawe's translation, but would only gain notoriety there about a century later, with the publication of William Julius Mickle's poetic version in 1776, which, although successful, did not prevent the emergence of another dozen English translations until the end of the 19th century.
[106]
[107]
It arrived in
France
at the beginning of the 18th century, when Castera published a translation of the epic. Voltaire criticized certain aspects of the work, namely its lack of unity in action and the mixture of Christian and pagan mythology, but he also admired the novelties it introduced in relation to other epics, contributing powerfully to its popularity.
Montesquieu
stated that Camoes' poem had something of the charm of the Odyssey and the magnificence of the
Aeneid
. Between 1735 and 1874 no less than twenty French translations of the book appeared, not counting numerous second editions and paraphrases of some of the most striking episodes. In 1777 Pieterszoon translated Os Lusiadas into Dutch and by the 19th century, five more partial translations had appeared.
[104]
[108]
Bibliography
[
edit
]
Works by Camoes
- English translations
- Os Lusiadas
, Manuel Nunes Godinho, 19th century
[109]
- The Lusiadas of Luiz de Camoes
. Leonard Bacon. 1966.
- Luis de Camoes: Epic and Lyric.
Keith Bosley
. Carcanet, 1990.
- The Lusiads
. Trans. Landeg White. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002.
ISBN
0-19-280151-1
.
- Luis de Camoes, Selected Sonnets: A Bilingual Edition.
Ed. and trans. William Baer. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2005.
ISBN
978-0-226-09266-9
. (Paperback publ. 2008,
ISBN
978-0-226-09286-7
)
- The Collected Lyric Poems of Luis de Camoes
Trans. Landeg White. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2008. ISBN
[110]
- Biography and textual study in English
- Life of Camoes
.
John Adamson
. Longman, 1820.
- Camoens: His Life and his Lusiads: A Commentary
. Richard Francis Burton. 2 vols. London: Quaritch, 1881.
[111]
- The Place of Camoens in Literature
. Joaquim Nabuco. Washington, D.C. [?], 1908.
[112]
- Luis de Camoes
. Aubrey F.G. Bell. London: 1923.
- Camoens, Central Figure of Portuguese Literature
.
Isaac Goldberg
. Girard: Haldeman-Julius, 1924.
- From Virgil to Milton
. Cecil M. Bowra. 1945.
- Camoens and the Epic of the Lusiads
. Henry Hersch Hart. 1962.
- The Presence of Camoes: Influences on the Literature of England, America & Southern Africa.
George Monteiro. Lexington:
University of Kentucky Press
, 1996.
ISBN
0-8131-1952-9
.
- Ordering Empire: The Poetry of Camoes, Pringle and Campbell.
Nicholas Meihuizen. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007.
ISBN
978-3-03911-023-0
.
- "Camoes, Prince of Poets". Clive Willis, HiPLAM, University of Bristol, 2010.
ISBN
978-0-9552406-6-9
- Biography and textual study in Spanish
- Camoens y Cervante
s / Orico, Osvaldo., 1948
- Camoens / Filgueira Valverde, Jose., 1958
- Homenaje a Camoens: Estudios y Ensayos., 1980
- Cuatro Lecciones Sobre Camoens / Alonso Zamora Vicente., 1981
In culture
[
edit
]
- Camoes is the subject of the first romantic painting from a Portuguese painter,
A Morte de Camoes
(1825), by
Domingos Sequeira
, now lost.
- His death in poverty and obscurity is the subject of
Letitia Elizabeth Landon
's poem
The Death of Camoens
.
[113]
This is one of Landon's
Subjects for Pictures
, in The New Monthly Magazine, 1838.
- He is one of the characters in
Gaetano Donizetti
's
grand opera
Dom Sebastien, Roi de Portugal
.
- Camoes figures prominently in the book
Het verboden rijk
(
The Forbidden Empire
) by the
Dutch
writer
J. Slauerhoff
, who himself made several voyages to the
Far East
as a ship's doctor.
- A museum dedicated to Camoes can be found in
Macau
, the Museu Luis de Camoes.
- In
Goa
(India) the Archeological Museum at Old Goa (which used to be a Franciscan monastery) houses a 3 meters high bronze statue of Luis de Camoes. The statue was originally installed in the garden in year 1960 but was moved into the museum due to public protest after Goa's annexation to India. Another Camoes monument in Goa, India ? "Jardim de Garcia da Orta Garden" (popularly known as Panaji Municipal Garden) has a 12 meter high pillar in the center.
- A
seamount
in the Indian Ocean is named after him.
[114]
[115]
- Institute Menezes Braganza
in
Panaji
,
Goa
has grand
Azulejos
adorning its walls. These ceramics depict scenes from Os Lusiadas.
- David Anderson, Nuno Cristo,
Aida Jordao
, Mark Keetch and Larry Lewis created a puppet play about Camoes called
Camoes, the One-Eyed Poet of Portugal
that premiere in Toronto in 2006.
[116]
[117]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
It is uncertain whether he was born in
Lisbon
,
Coimbra
,
Constancia
or
Alenquer
.
- ^
Foreseeing the Spanish invasion, Camoes wrote to his old friend and Captain General of Lamego, D. Francisco de Almeida: "All will see that so dear to me was my country that I was content to die not only in it but with it"
References
[
edit
]
- ^
e.g. by
Byron
in
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers
.
- ^
Minchillo, Carlos Cortez (1998).
Sonetos de Camoes ("Biografia")
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Atelie Editorial.
ISBN
978-85-85851-62-0
.
- ^
a
b
Jayne, K. G. (April 2004).
Vasco Da Gama and His Successors 1460 to 1580
. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 250?251.
ISBN
978-0-7661-9706-0
.
- ^
Mourao e Vasconcelos, Jose Maria do Carmo de Sousa Botelho, Morgado de Mateus (1847).
Os Lusiadas: nova edicao segundo a do Morgado Matteus, com as notas e vida do autor pelo mesmo, corrigida segunda as edicoes de Hamburgo e de Lisboa, e enrequecida de novas notas e d'uma prefacao pel C.L. de Moura
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Didot.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
a
b
c
Fernandes, Manuel Bernardo Lopes (1861).
Memoria das medalhas e condecoracoes portuguezas e das estrangeiras com relacao a Portugal
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Typ. da mesma academia. pp. 48?49.
- ^
Obras de Luis de Camoes, Tomo I ("Breve Noticia da Vida de Luis de Camoes")
. Officina Luisiana. 1779.
- ^
Obras Completas de Luis de Camoes, Vol. I. ("Vida de Luis de Camoes")
. Officina typographica de Langhoff. 1834.
- ^
Brewster, David (1837).
Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, Vol. III
. Longman, Rees,Orme, Brown, Green & Longman. p. 298.
- ^
Saraiva, Lopes, Antonio Jose & Oscar.
Historia da Literatura Portuguesa (Porto Editora, 6ª edicao) 3ª Epoca: O Renascimento, Capitulo IX: Luis de Camoes
. p. 331.
- ^
Soutto-Mayor, Maciel (1867).
Archivo pittoresco, Volume 10
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Tip. de Castro Irmao. pp. 341?342.
- ^
Nabuco, Joaquim (21 September 2009).
Camoes e os Lusiadas
(in Portuguese). BiblioBazaar. pp. 30?31.
ISBN
978-1-115-23386-6
.
- ^
a
b
Spina, Segismundo.
Os Lusiadas ? Antologia
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Atelie Editorial. pp. 9?10.
ISBN
978-85-85851-54-5
.
- ^
Minchillo (1998).
Sonetos de Camoes
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Atelie Editorial. pp. 211?212.
ISBN
978-85-85851-62-0
.
- ^
a
b
Gentil, Georges Le (1995).
Camoes: l'œuvre epique & lyrique
(in French). Editions Chandeigne. pp. 13?14.
ISBN
978-2-906462-16-8
.
- ^
Minchillo (1998).
Sonetos de Camoes
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Atelie Editorial. pp. 212?213.
ISBN
978-85-85851-62-0
.
- ^
Mourao e Vasconcelos (1847).
Os Lusiadas: nova edicao segundo a do Morgado Matteus, com as notas e vida do autor pelo mesmo, corrigida segunda as edicoes de Hamburgo e de Lisboa, e enrequecida de novas notas e d'uma prefacao pel C.L. de Moura
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Didot. pp. 34?35.
- ^
Gentil, Georges Le (1995).
Camoes: l'œuvre epique & lyrique
(in French). Editions Chandeigne. pp. 20?21.
ISBN
978-2-906462-16-8
.
- ^
Gentil, Georges Le (1995).
Camoes: l'œuvre epique & lyrique
(in French). Editions Chandeigne. pp. 19?21.
ISBN
978-2-906462-16-8
.
- ^
Ribeiro, Eduardo Alberto Correia (2008).
Camoes nas partes da China
. Revista Labirintos.
- ^
a
b
Saldanha, Manoel Jose Gabriel (1990).
Historia de Goa: Historia politica
(in Brazilian Portuguese). Asian Educational Services. pp. 100?101.
ISBN
978-81-206-0590-9
.
- ^
Ribeiro, Eduardo Alberto Correia (2008).
Camoes nas partes da China
. Revista Labirintos. pp. 1?5.
- ^
Gentil, Georges Le (1995).
Camoes: l'œuvre epique & lyrique
(in French). Editions Chandeigne. pp. 22?25.
ISBN
978-2-906462-16-8
.
- ^
a
b
Ribeiro, Eduardo Alberto Correia (2008).
Camoes nas partes da China
. Revista Labirintos. pp. 11?20.
- ^
Gentil, Georges Le (1995).
Camoes: l'œuvre epique & lyrique
(in French). Editions Chandeigne. pp. 26?27.
ISBN
978-2-906462-16-8
.
- ^
Ribeiro, Eduardo Alberto Correia (2008).
Camoes nas partes da China
. Revista Labirintos. p. 7.
- ^
Ribeiro, Eduardo Alberto Correia (2008).
Camoes nas partes da China
. Revista Labirintos. p. 8.
- ^
a
b
Mourao e Vasconcelos (1847).
Os Lusiadas: nova edicao segundo a do Morgado Matteus, com as notas e vida do autor pelo mesmo, corrigida segunda as edicoes de Hamburgo e de Lisboa, e enrequecida de novas notas e d'uma prefacao pel C.L. de Moura
. pp. 40?41.
- ^
a
b
Gentil, Georges Le (1995).
Camoes: l'œuvre epique & lyrique
(in French). Editions Chandeigne. pp. 27?29.
ISBN
978-2-906462-16-8
.
- ^
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Camoes Seamount
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. p. B01.
General references
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Hart, Henry Hersch.
Luis de Camoens and the Epic of the Lusiads,
University of Oklahoma Press, 1962.
- Willis, Clive. "Camoes, Prince of Poets". HiPLAM, University of Bristol, 2010.
ISBN
0-9552406-6-2
,
ISBN
978-0-9552406-6-9
External links
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edit
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