1335?1432 Persianate Mongol state in modern Iraq and western Iran
Jalayirid Sultanate
????????
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Fragmentation of the territory of the
Ilkhanate
territory into various polities, including the Jalayirids (
)
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Capital
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Common languages
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Government
| Monarchy
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History
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? Established
| 1335
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? Disestablished
| 1432
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Today part of
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The
Jalayirid Sultanate
(
Persian
:
????????
) was a
Mongol
Jalayir
dynasty which ruled over modern-day
Iraq
and western
Iran
after the breakup of the
Mongol khanate of Persia
in the 1330s.
[5]
It lasted about fifty years, until disrupted by
Timur
's conquests and the revolts of the
Qara Qoyunlu
Turkoman
. After Timur's death in 1405, there was a brief attempt to re-establish the sultanate in southern
Iraq
and
Khuzistan
. The Jalayirids were finally eliminated by the Qara Qoyunlu in 1432.
[6]
[7]
The Jalayirids were
Turkicized
and
Turkic-speaking
. They are credited with bolstering the Turkic presence in Arabic-speaking Iraq so much so that Turkic became the second-most-spoken language after Arabic.
The Jalayirids were also culturally
Persianate
,
and their era marks an important period in the evolution of
Persian art
, where it developed important aspects that would serve as the basis of later Persian paintings.
History
[
edit
]
The history of the Sultanate of Jalayirid can be divided into four phases:
- The first phase was during the early years when the dynasty was practically autonomous but theoretically accepted the authorization of the Ilkhanate state.
- The second phase, corresponding to the rule of
Shaykh Uways Jalayir
(1356?1374), is the peak of the Jalayirids.
- The third phase was a weakening period that began after the death of Uways.
- The fourth phase was when the country became exposed to external attacks by Timur and the
Qara Qoyunlu
and where the dynasty came to an end.
[6]
[9]
[5]
Early years
[
edit
]
During the disintegration years of the
Ilkhanate
after the death of
Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan
in 1335, the family of emir Ilge (?lg?) Noyan, known as Koke (Kuk?, ‘Blue’) Ilge, descendants of the Jalayirid tribe, first emerged as the inheritors of the traditional governors of the southwestern lands of the Ilkhanate. Ilge Noyan had taken over pasturelands along the River Onon in
Mongolia
and produced several military commanders during the Mongol era. According to the
Jami' al-tawarikh
written by
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
, Ilge, who accompanied
Hulegu
on his great expedition to
Western Asia
in the 1250s, was among the generals who besieged the Assassins' strongholds in
Qohestan
in 1256. Besides, Ilge joined the expedition to
Baghdad
and was tasked with overseeing the rebuilding of the city after its siege in 1258. Ilge Noyan served Hulegu until the khan's death in 1265. When the
Abaka khan
came to the throne in 1265 and was identified as a senior emir, Ilge was in charge of the ordos ("royal headquarters"). Ilge was one of the main military leaders in conflicts with the
Mamluks
and Jochids, neighbors and opponents of the Ilkhanate, in Baghdad,
Syria
,
Diyarbakir
and the
Caucasus
.
[7]
[6]
[12]
Ilge Noyan's sons Agbuga (?qbuq?), Tughu were also in the service of
Abaga khan
. Agbuga, who was promoted to mir-e mir?n (commander-in-chief) by Keyhatu khan, was later assassinated by
Baydu
's supporters in 1295. He became the patron (murabb?) of Sadr al-Din Zanjani, Kaykhatu's grand vizier. Aq buqa was married to Qhazan khan's sister ?ljat?y Sul??n, but after his death, his son Hussein married his father's wife and took the title of g?rg?n (greregen) or royal son-in-law.
[5]
The Jalayirids and contemporary Asian polities, circa
c.
1400
Hussein first served
Oljaitu
and then Abu Sa'id, and took part in the march on
Gilan
in 1317. He was later appointed ruler of Arran in 1313 and died in Khorasan in 1322. After his death, his son
Shaykh Hasan
("Hasan Buzurg", "Hasan The Great") became the head of the family. He was both the cousin of Abu Sa'id and the nephew of Amir Choban.
[12]
[7]
[6]
After defeating his rivals,
Hasan Buzurg
strengthened his ties with Muhammad Khan (Pir Hussein), who ruled
Anatolia
at the time. He then proceeded to
Tabriz
where he put Muhammad on the throne and married the granddaughter of Chupan and the wife of Abu Sa'id,
Dilshad Khatun
. Shaykh ?asan was the ‘bikl?r? bik [beglerbeg], or am?r al-umar?’’.
[6]
[13]
For a short time in 1337?1338, Hasan Buzurg-un's authority was recognized in all parts of the Ilkhanate Empire except Khorasan, but after being expelled by ?asan-e Kucak and his brother
Malek A?raf
in 1338?1339, he was forced to evacuate Azerbaijan and his power only held in Iraq. Hasan Buzurg died in July 1356 and was buried in
Najaf
. He was succeeded by his son,
Shaikh Uways Jalayir
.
[14]
[15]
[16]
Shaykh Uways period
[
edit
]
According to historian Patrick Wing, while the Jalayirid sultans sought to preserve the social and political order of the Ilkhanate, they claimed to be the legitimate heirs of the rule of this order. At the center of the claims of the Jalayirid regarding the Ilkhanid heritage was their attempt to control Azerbaijan, the main center of the Ilkhanate. This province represented the symbolic heritage and material wealth of the Ilkhanate and became the focus of the Jalayirid political program.
[7]
Shortly after Shaykh Uways Jalayir succeeded his father, the old enemy of the Jalayirids, the Chobanids, were overrun by the forces of the
Golden Horde
under
Jani Beg
in 1357.
Malek Asraf
was executed, and
Azerbaijan
was conquered.
Following Jani Beg's withdrawal from Azerbaijan, as well as his son
Berdi Beg
’s similar abandonment of the region in 1358, the area became a prime target for its neighbors.
Shaykh Uways Jalayir
, who at first had recognized the sovereignty of the Blue Horde, decided to take the former Chobanid lands for himself, even as a former amir of Malek Asraf’s named Akhichuq attempted to keep the region in Mongol hands. Despite a campaign that ended prematurely, as well as the brief conquest of Azerbaijan by the
Muzaffarids
, Uvais conquered the area in 1360. In addition to Baghdad, he could now boast Tabriz as a large city under his control.
[17]
[5]
[6]
[7]
In 1364, Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka’us, but a revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. In 1366, Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against the
Kara Koyunlu
, defeating their leader,
Bairam Khwaja
, at the battle of Mush. Later, he defeated the Shirvanshah, who had attacked Tabriz twice in the meantime. According to Zayn al- D?n Qazv?n? and ??fi? Abr?, K?’?s readily overpowered all of Shirvan and Darband for
Shaykh Uways Jalayir
, and remained a faithful servant as long as he lived. After the death of K?’?s, Shaykh Uways Jalayir confirmed his son, H?shang, as the successor of
Shirvanshahs
.
[7]
Due to his campaigns, Shaykh Uways Jalayir spent much time in Iran, and he died in Tabriz in 1374. During his lifetime, the Jalayirid state reached its peak in power. In addition to his military adventures, which were considerable, he was known for his attempts to revive commercial enterprise, which had suffered heavily in the past years, in the region, as well as his patronage to the arts. His chronicler, Abu Bakr al-Qutbi al Ahri, wrote of Shaykh Uways Jalayir’ deeds in the
Tarikh-i Shaikh Uvais
. Shaykh Uways Jalayir was succeeded by his son
Shaikh Hasan Jalayir
. He appointed his son Hassan as his successor in Baghdad. After his death the power of the dynasty began to disappear sharply.
[18]
[19]
[5]
Decline
[
edit
]
In 1376, Shaikh Hussain Jalayir took up residence in Tabriz. In the following spring, he undertook a successful campaign against the Kara Koyunlu under
Bayram Khwaja
, who had been raiding from the west.
Shaikh Hussain Jalayir
lost his supporters because of the external enemies and conflicts within the amirs. His brother Sultan
Ahmad Jalayir
came to power as a result of a plot against him. Ahmad's other brothers, Shaikh 'Ali and
Bayazid
opposed him. To secure his position, Ahmad requested the assistance of the
Kara Koyunlu
. Shaikh 'Ali fell in battle against the
Kara Koyunlu
.
[7]
In the spring of 1384, the
Chagatai
amir
Timur
attacked the Jalayirids and Azerbaijan. Although Sultan Ahmad was not captured, his subordinates in
Soltaniyeh
failed to defend the town and Timur took it with a minimum of resistance.
[20]
In the midst of Timur's absence, Sultan Ahmad had to deal with an invasion by
Tokhtamysh
, Khan of the
Golden Horde
in 1385.
[20]
Timur completed his Indian campaign and returned to Azerbaijan in 1396. Kara Koyunlu ruler Kara Yusuf, who retreated to Mosul to avoid a sudden raid, was able to take shelter in the Ottomans in 1400.
[21]
The hosting of
Yildirim Bayezid
to
Kara Yusuf
was one of the main reasons
Timur
launched a campaign against the
Ottomans
. He was able to reach
Damascus
by escaping into the desert. Kara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the naib of Damascus. Not long after, Jalairid Sultan Ahmed also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Amir Teymur, Nasir-ad-Din Faraj agreed to capture Gara Yusif and Sultan Ahmed Jalairi, and hand them over to Teymur. Sultan Ahmed Jalayir and Kara Yusuf imprisoned on the order of
Nasir-ad-Din Faraj
. Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Sultan Ahmed Jalayir should keep Baghdad while
Qara Yusuf
would have Azerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted his son Pirbudag. When Timur died in 1405 Nasir-ad-Din Faraj released them both. However, according to Faruk Sumer, they were released on the orders of rebellious wali of Damascus ? Sheykh Mahmud.
[22]
[20]
In 1409 fall, Qara Yusuf entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party to
Shirvan
, especially
Shaki
, which was fruitless.
Kara Koyunlu
defeated Jalayirds in 1432, bringing an end to the dynasty.
[23]
[12]
[7]
[6]
Government
[
edit
]
The Jalayirid administration was modeled after Ilkhanate protocols, with documents in Persian and Mongolian.
[3]
Its diplomatic correspondence also resembled the Ilkhanate's, using a red ink square seal with Islamic phrases in Arabic.
[3]
Rulers
[
edit
]
Family Tree
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
d
Broadbridge, Anne F.
Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds
, (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 157.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Bayne Fisher, William.
The Cambridge History of Iran
, p. 3: "From then until Timur's invasion of the country, Iran was under the rule of various rival petty princes of whom henceforth only the Jalayirids could claim Mongol lineage"
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica.
"Jalayerids"
.
iranicaonline.org
. Retrieved
2021-10-10
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Wing 2016
- ^
Grousset, Rene (1970).
The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia
. Rutgers University Press.
ISBN
978-0813513041
.
- ^
a
b
"Digitised Manuscripts"
.
www.bl.uk
.
- ^
Sturkenboom, Ilse (2018).
"The Paintings of the FreerDivanof Sultan Ahmad b. Shaykh Uvays and a New Taste for Decorative Design"
.
Iran
.
56
(2): 198.
doi
:
10.1080/05786967.2018.1482727
.
ISSN
0578-6967
.
S2CID
194905114
.
- ^
a
b
c
Ahari Kutbi, Abu Bakr; Baptist Van Loon, Johannes (1954).
Ta'r?kh-i Shaikh Uwais : (History of Shaikh Uais) : An important source for the history of Adharbaij?n in the fourteenth century
. 's-Gravenhage.
- ^
Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica.
"Chobanidis"
.
iranicaonline.org
. Retrieved
2021-10-10
.
- ^
Lane, George (2006).
Daily life in the Mongol Empire
. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 251.
ISBN
978-0-313-33226-5
.
- ^
Mabud Khan, Abdul, ed. (2001).
Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities
. Vol. 2. Global Vision.
ISBN
978-8187746058
.
- ^
Fleet, Kate, ed. (2010).
The Cambridge History of Turkey
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-1139055963
.
- ^
Dizadji, H (2010).
Journey from Tehran to Chicago: My Life in Iran and the United States, and a Brief History of Iran
. Trafford Publishing.
ISBN
978-1426929182
.
- ^
Morgan, David (2015).
Medieval Persia 1040?1797
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1317415671
.
- ^
G. Browne, Edward (1926).
A Literary History of Persia: The Tartar Dominion
.
ISBN
0-936347-66-X
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Karakoyunlular ? TDV ?slam Ansiklopedisi"
.
TDV ?slam Ansiklopedisi
(in Turkish)
. Retrieved
2021-10-10
.
- ^
"Karakoyunlular ?TDV ?slam Ansiklopedisi"
.
TDV ?slam Ansiklopedisi
(in Turkish)
. Retrieved
2021-10-10
.
- ^
Muir, William (2010).
The Mameluke Or Slave Dynasty of Egypt 1260?1517 A.D.
Nabu Press.
ISBN
978-1142162863
.
- ^
Piran McClary, Richard; Peacock, A.C.S. (2010).
Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections
. Brill.
ISBN
978-9004437364
.
- ^
CA?MAN, F?L?Z; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011).
"Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul"
(PDF)
.
Muqarnas
.
28
: 230, 258 Fig.56.
ISSN
0732-2992
.
JSTOR
23350289
.
- ^
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund.
The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual.
New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys Series;
ISBN
978-0-7486-2137-8
- ^
Mernissi, Fatima (2003).
The forgotten queens of Islam
. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. 105?106.
ISBN
0-19-579868-6
.
OCLC
53139275
.
Sources
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
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Middle East
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Civil wars
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| Ancient
| 3400?539 BC
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550 BC?AD 224
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AD 224?651
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Medieval and
early modern
| 632?1090
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977?1432
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Modern
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See also
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